Topic 2: Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th Centuries

Topic 2: Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th Centuries – History Form Five

COMPETENCES TO BE COVERED

The concept of industrial revolution.
Phases of industrial revolution.
Transition from cottage to factory system (1750s – 1870s)
Industrial revolution and the rise of working-class movements in Britain.
The second phase of industrial revolution (1840s – 1870s)

THE CONCEPT OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Industrial revolution refers to a series of technological changes and innovations that transformed industrial production from cottage to factory system between 1750s and 1840 in western Europe notably England.

Innovations such as spinning jenny and steam engine revolutionized industries such as textiles, mining and transportation.
The industrial revolution was the major turning point in the history of man as the transition from Agrarian and manual labour-based economy to machine-based production fundamentally transformed social, political, technological and economic life throughout Europe and eventually the rest of the world.
As far as date specification for the start of the revolution is concerned, historians do agree that the revolution did not develop at once. It was a gradual stage from simple invention to more improved ones with a more advanced technology as a time went on

INNOVATIONS/INVENTIONS/DI COVERIES INCLUDED

jenny by Spinning James Hargreaves in 1738  Steam engine by James Watt in 1830.
Flying shuttle by john Kay in 1738.
Spine mule by Samuel Comaton in 1779.
Cotton Jin by Eliwhite in 1793.
Iron furnaces by Henry Bessemer in 1730.
Rail locomotives by Mudrock Stephenson.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

1. The substitution of human and animal labour force (inanimate forces). They were substituted with the engines (animate forces) as new source of power. Production shifted from hand tools to machines and in which new sources of power such as steam and electricity replaced human and animal power. The engine provided extra energy for more and easy production

2. The development of factory system of production. This replaced the guild system of the feudal cottage industries. In a factory system, production of related items is concentrated in single units of production, the factories.

3. Increase in the quality and quantity of manufactured goods. Machines added efficiency and provided extra energy to speed up production. Thus improved quality and increased quantities of manufactured goods for the market

4. Increased division of labour. This was much facilitated by the factory system as different units in production are done by different specialized people. This consequently improved industrial efficiency and productivity

5. Rapid rise and growth of towns and cities. As many workers were needed in the industries, they had to shift their home near factories. This led to the rise of urban centers like Lancashire, Birmingham and Brussels in Belgium to accommodate the workers and their employers. so., towns sprung out of buildings around factories.

6. Emergence of classes. Two main classes emerged, the bourgeoisie who are the factory owners and businessmen owning and controlling the major means of production and the class of workers, the proletariat who were employed in the factories

7. Increased application of science and technology in industrial production. New scientific and technological inventions and discoveries were only major force for industrial production and the continual technological advancement was needed for industrial growth

8. Expansion of trade. Trade expanded trade due to the increase in production of industrial goods that is both raw material and manufactured goods.as producers of raw material increased production to feed industries, they raised incomes and thus also provided market to industrial manufactured goods. Workers also provided market to industries

PHASES OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Industrial revolution divided into several phases, each characterized by different technological advancements, economic changes and social changes.

Industrial revolution between the mid-18^th and the late 19^th evolved into two main phases namely,

The first phase of industrial revolution (1750s-1840s)
Second phase of industrial revolution (1840s-1870s)

THE FIRST PHASE OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (1750s-1840s)

This period witnessed the beginning of structural transformation in the history of European industrialization
These transformations were categorically associated with the emergence of the first industrial revolution, which existed between the 1750s-1840s
This phase was characterized by initial innovations through trial and error
The industries at this phase focused on producing consumer goods, primarily dominated by textile industry

THE COTTAGE SYSTEM (PUTTING-OUT SYSTEM)

Cottage industry refers to the period when skilled craftsmen and artisans crafted goods within their cottage, utilizing their own equipment and resources.

Cottage industries was a small-scale industry with light machine that applied simple technology
Its labour force consisted of individuals, family units or close-knit communities working at home with their own equipment.
The production of goods was increased was increased by employing more labour and lengthening labour time (long working hours)
Under this system, producers (craftsmen or artisans) did not involve themselves in selling their goods rather they put them out for middlemen to sell them to the market. Also, middle men brought raw material and put them out for craftsmen to produce more goods

FEATURES OF COTTAGE SYSTEM

Cottage system operated in putting-out system

This meant that the producer (craftsmen and artisans) did not sell, and the seller(merchant) did not produce. Hence there was no direct participation between producers and sellers in the whole production process. While craftsmen controlled production, merchants acted as middlemen who facilitated the exchange of commodities.

1. Industries were locally organized and located at home

The family remained both an economic and social unit. It was a domestic system of production as home life and working life were closely related.

2. Production was dominated by hand technology

This is because, it involved the use of manual labour. Cottage industries used simple machines operated by hand. This usually resulted in slow and low production of goods.

3. Limited capital investment

Since large machinery and infrastructure are not required, capital investment remains low. Workers relied on locally available raw material and resources

4. Market limitation

Cottage industries primarily cater to local or niche markets rather than large- scale commercial markets. This was due to limited access to transportation and marketing channels.

5. Low productivity

Due to the use of manual labour where workers performed tasks like weaving and pottery, cottage industries experienced low production. Also low production was due to the use of simple tools and lack of modern technology and innovation. All these led to low output

6. They were village- based industries

Most industries were located in the villages and along river valleys. The towns served mainly as commercial centers which were under a strict guild system. Thus many industries shifted to village to escape from guild restrictions.

7. The cottage industries were guided by guild system

This system was based on apprenticeship as an entry qualification to specialization such as craftsmanship. Entering into specialization demanded very serious training. Also, guild system was introduced to protect and safeguard the interests and the rights of the group of a certain craftsman like tailors and weavers.

TRANSITION FROM COTTAGE TO FACTORY SYSTEM (1750s1870s)

The cottage industries struggled to keep pace with the growing demand due the increase of population. As a result, producers, entrepreneurs and inventors sought ways to increase production which ultimately led to the invention of the factory system in the mid-18^th century

THE FACTORY SYSTEM

Is a method of manufacturing that uses machinery and division of labour to produce goods on large scale. It replaced tradition cottage industry where goods were made by hand in small workshops or home. The factory may under a single roof or located in several buildings in the same locality.

In factory system, goods are produced by hired(workers) labour that use raw material and operate tools and power machines provided by the owners

FEATURES OF FACTORY SYSTEM

1. Application of advanced technology in production

Factories use the newly invented technology and techniques in production. For example, early factories used steam engines which were the most advanced technology by that time.

2. Establishment of factories near source of fuel

Like on coal field, in England textile industries were established in North Western England around Lancashire and Manchester while iron industries development in central England around Birmingham.

3. Division of labour

Specialization was essential for efficiency as different units in production in the factory needed different attention. This increased production and at the same time improved quality of manufactured goods.

4. Replacement of feudal cottage and domestic industry

The location of the work was in the industrial towns where factories were established and not in individual home as it was with the domestic cottage industries of the feudal system

5. The rise and the growth of industrial towns

Factory workers made their home around factories leading creation of new urban centers and expansion of the already existing towns

6. Poor working and living condition

In most cases industrial workers lived in slums characterized by poor housing and sanitation facilities due to their low incomes. This made workers prone to diseases like cholera which claimed many lives.

7. Exploitation of workers

Exploitation was experienced through long working hours, low wages, child labour and poor working facilities like safety gears such as gloves. Exploitation however led to workers’ movements (trade unions) as worker’s reaction against exploitation

QNS.

1. Compare and contrast the working condition in cottage industries with those in early factories during the industrial revolution

2. How did the transition from cottage industries impact the population pattern during the industrial revolution in Britain or western Europe?

BRITAIN AS THE FIRST COUNTRY TO INDUSTRIALISE IN EUROPE

Britain was the first country to undergo industrialization in Europe and was the first country to experience industrial Revolution globally. She had no example to emulate.

A question rises why did Britain and not any other country industrialize first? This question calls for the examination of internal dynamics of industrial development within Britain and external forces hastened the whole process of industrialization

FACTORS FOR THE BRITISH INDUSTRIALISATION

1. The British geographical situation

Being an island, British was separated from continental Europe hence free from continental conflicts. While war and conflicts destabilized and limited progress in other European nations, England was safe and stable. Her position also made her enjoy trade since she had no co0ntinental barriers to be easily connected to different part of the world especially to overseas sources of raw materials and market

2. Britain had greater access to natural resources

These included coal and iron mainly at home and from her colonies. Coal was a greater source of energy to run engines (steam engines) and iron was important in making iron bars for machine making. On top of coal she had other source of fuel in abundance like timber. Though nations like France and Germany states had enough coal and iron deposits, had not yet started exploiting them

3. Agrarian Revolution

England was the first to develop highly modern agricultural skills. The revolution increased raw material production particularly wool and cotton which boosted woolen and textile industries. Also increased food production which contributed to rapid population growth that provided cheap labour and expansion of domestic market.

4. Effectiveness and efficiency of British state

British government was much effective in passing favorable policies which help to boost British economy. For example, it abolished feudalism and distributed nation wealth in a proper way, encouraged external trade by protecting its merchants and also passed laws to protect private property something which encouraged inventions and innovations

5. England’s early acquisition of colonies

By the 18^th century she controlled almost ¼ of the world’s population in her colonies of India, America, Canada Australia, New Zealand and the Caribbean. Colonies gave Britain several economic advantages like abundant raw materials like cotton, Sugar, iron ores, expansion of market for her goods, accumulation of capital and expansion of her trading zones.

6. Development of high entrepreneurship skills

By the 18^th century many English men developed great enterprises and managerial skills. They could easily coordinate the capital and use it to accumulate profits. The organized themselves in joint stock companies to carry out trade which added more managerial skills and capital to handle bigger businesses. This gave Britain advantage over others

7. Development of efficiency transport networks

England had good harbor which gave her advantage from the start. Raw material areas, manufacturing centers and sea ports were well connected with efferent road and railway networks supplemented with developed river and canal system. Also Britain had highly developed marine transport system which enabled her easily connect to various source of raw materials and market in the world.

BRITAIN AS THE WORKSHOP OF THE WORLD

The term ‘workshop of the world’ was associated with the British pioneering of the industrial revolution, dominance in industri9al production and ability to dominate the world market. By then the whole world largely depended on British manufactured goods because of the British industrial manufacturing dominance

WHY WAS BRITAIN TERMED AS WORKSHOP OF THE WORLD?

1. Britain was the first nation to undergo industrial revolution from 1750s

She dominated the first phase of industrial revolution ,1750s-1860s. Other European states had not yet developed highly efficient technology to march British

2. She monopolized the whole world market

She was the first to taste the industrial revolution hence possessed many industries which enabled her produce enough to control the world. Above all British manufacturers focused on wider markets by largely depending on production of cheap consumer goods like cloth than luxurious goods

3. Britain possessed higher industrial technology in the world

Britain possessed the highest technology like the steam engines compared to her rival nations such as France with small and mostly cottage industries. On that note even her rivals depended on Britain for machines and manufactured goods

4. Britain had large economy in the world

Between 1750s and 1870s she had reached an economy worth about 540m pounds, the largest in the world. Other countries like France with 250m and Germany 212 could not fairly compare with her. This enabled the British invest in more industries than her rivals.

5. Britain had the largest colonial empire than any other nation in the world

She had colonies in America, India, Australia, Canada and in the Caribbean which put about ¼ of the world’s population under her control. This enabled her control the largest sources of raw materials and wider market for manufactured goods.

6. Early accumulation of abundant capital

Britain had a high supply of capital for investing in her industrial development and trade. By 1750s she had already acquired a lot of capital through mercantilism and from the enclosure system. It was this capital that was invested in manufacturing industry

7. Britain had abundance of cheap natural resources

Britain possessed huge iron and coal deposits and enough timber, from iron bars, coal and timber to run steam engine. She also had abundant raw materials from her advanced agriculture. Though other nations like France and Germany had such resources, they had not yet started exploiting them

8. Development of transport networks

Britain had developed a reliable transport system to support her industrial dominance. She had developed well connected rail-road networks which linked well with her developed river and canal system and importantly a well-developed marine transport system. This connected British producers, manufacturers and market both domestic and abroad

9. Development of high entrepreneurship skills

By the 18^th century many English men had developed great enterprises and managerial skills. They could easily coordinate their capital and use it to accumulate profits. They organized themselves in joint stock companies to carry out trade which enabled them access source of raw materials and markets easily and raise huge capital which was also invested in industries.

HOW INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION SPREAD FROM BRITAIN TO OTHER NATIONS.

The industrial revolution spread from Britain to other countries like Belgium, France, Germany, USA, Italy and Japan between 1850s and 1890s through a number of ways

1. The London exhibition of 1851

English invited other countries to witness her technological and economic achievements. The participants sent their scientists and industrialist to learn from the English advancements. Other countries then borrowed British technology which they modified to make more invention to fit their demands and surpass Britain. Countries which sent representatives included France, Prussia, USA and Japan

2. The role of British overseas trade

British traded in both consumer and capital goods. Countries with creative and innovative skilled men and manufacturers took the advantage of purchasing machinery from Britain to raise industries and also copy and adopt or modify the British technology to fit their demands. On that they were able to industrialize in the same line of Britain.

3. British foreign investments

This was by either colonization or economic ties with foreign countries. In the mercantile era, English merchants and industrialist heavily invested in America in industries like ship repairing and building, textile and food processing. This was the basis of American industrial progress.

4. Labour mobility

This was of two kinds, English manufacturers hired cheap labour from other countries like Belgium. The hired labour went back home with knowledge on machine making and industrial settings. On the other hand, other countries like USA hired from Britain scientists and skilled labour to conduct scientific research and improve their industry.

5. Abundance of natural resources

The availability of natural resources needed for industrial progress by some countries also accelerated the spread of industrial revolution in the world. Countries like Belgium, USA, France, Germany and Japan possessed abundant natural resources like coal, iron ore, timber and land for the production of industrial equipment, energy and raw materials for industrial development

6. Scientific research and technology

From the mid of 18^th century, states like Germany and USA were heavily investing in scientific and technological research. This brought new invention by themselves and more modification of old technology. For example, the invention of internal combustion by German scientist Gottlieb Daimler which substituted the steam engine. This strengthened transportation service.

7. Availability of capital

By mid-19^th century a number of western countries had acquired enough capital to invest in industries. Countries like France, Portugal, Holland, Spain and USA benefited from mercantilism. More precisely, mercantile powers like France and Spain benefited from American and Caribbean colonies with cheap raw materials and markets and trade in slaves. Capital was also availed in their prosperous agriculture and internal trade

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND THE RISE OF WORKING CLASS MOVEMENTS IN BRITAIN.

Industrial revolution refers to the fundamental changes that occurred in techniques (methods) of industrial production in Europe whereby the newly invented machines replaced human labor in performing complicated tasks so as to increase the level of quality and quantity of production.

A Working class movement is a form of collective consciousness involving a group of workers or wage earners unified with the same interests of opposing exploitation and oppression at their work places such as industries and farms.

A worker or a proletariat is a person who does not own any means of production, such as factories, machines, land, mines, buildings or vehicle who survives by selling his/her labor power for wages.

THE FACTORY WORKERS PROTEST

The pre-industrial working-class movements are movements which were formed before industrial revolution in Europe, they grouped into two:

Rural protests
Urban protests

Rural protests were worker’s movements that were based in rural areas fighting for unemployment, to get back their land and to restore their subsistence system.

Urban protests were worker’s movements based in towns demanding improvements in working conditions like increase in wages, mass unemployment, returning to their farms in villages, etc.

HOW THE FACTORY SYSTEM (INVENTION OF MACHINES) ACTIVATED THE RISE OF WORKERS COSCIOUSNESS (MOVEMENTS) IN BRITAIN?

Increase in long working hours
Low wages to the proletariats
Mass unemployment in Britain
Poor working conditions
Increase in child and women labour
Introduction to restrictive laws
Hard tasks of operating machines
Environmental pollution.

LUDDISM / LUDDIST MOVEMENT 1811-1830

This was the first industrial working-class movement led by NED LUDD of Nottingham Forest from 1811 to 1830 in England, it involved the use of threatening letters signed by general Ned Ludd of Nottingham Forest, use of big hammers called Enoch hammers and salt by the luddites in order to destroy the newly invented industrial region of midland especially Birmingham, North Hampshire, Leicestershire, Lancashire, Lincolnshire, Derbyshire, Bedfordshire, etc.

It enabled the luddites to conspire and destroyed the new machines of having caused a lot of man’s suffering and exploitation. Due to their actions, it forced the government of Britain to pass the “work and work act” of 1812 so as to reduce the violent nature of the luddites.

CAUSES OF LUDDISM

1. Mass unemployment due to introduction of machines which laid many workers redundancy causing social misery and hunger among the industrial workers. This resulted into the formation of luddism of 1811 in Europe.

2. Poor working conditions such as dirty working environment with respiratory diseases, poor medical care, long working hours, poor working conditions in form of absence of gloves, nose filters, helmets and gumboots, job security etc. stimulated anger among the luddites thus the formation of the first industrial working-class movement.

3. The adverse effects of the newly invented machines. Workers faced hard tasks of operating such machines, worse still many workers were injured as result of the new machines like the power-driven saw mill and spinning machines hence the rise of luddism.

4. Increase in the cost of living in Britain, this forced the workers to expect some relief from their government to be rescued from hunger, diseases and general poor living conditions. Under such circumstances luddites intensified their efforts to dismantle machines in European factories in 1811.

5. The low wages that were paid to industrial workers by bourgeoisies. This was common when many workers were competing for new jobs, such situations gave chance to capitalists to exploit the workers hence resulting into the rise of antagonistic struggles from luddites in Britain.

6. The use of child and women labour. The industrial owners preferred the use of women and children who were paid low wages. This increased the redundancy of professional men and poor working conditions in industries hence the rise of luddism.

7. The American trade embargo act of 1807 and non-intercourse act of 1809.

8. The impact of economic depression of 1811-1812

ACHIEVEMENTS OF LUDDISM MOVEMENT IN EUROPE

1. Luddism exposed the weaknesses of capitalism, it showed that capitalism is an evil that survives on the exploitation of the workers through low wages, long working hours and lack of job security. This created awareness to the masses all over Britain and Europe at large thus an achievement of luddism.

2. Luddism laid foundation for future workers movements which were built on the principle of luddism 1811, Chartism in 1833 and new model trade union that were built on the principles of the past experience of luddism.

3. It also laid consciousness among the British workers to protect their rights against capitalist’s exploitation whereby many other movements like Chartism and new model trade union that were built on principles of the past experiences of luddism.

4. It also achieved in improving the working conditions of British workers through paying the pensions, holiday fees and prohibition of employing children and women in mines and factories of Europe.

5. It led to adoption of better techniques of fighting by European workers in the future which involved the use of diplomatic measures and formation of trade unions hence achievement of luddism. Also, through its methods of riots and violence gave a lesson to capitalists to care for the workers needs and welfare as the only way of preventing property destruction in future.

6. It achieved reducing the working hours from 18 hours to 12 hours a day, also the British government was able to pass a series of laws protecting workers at their work place.

7. Luddism led to the development of scientific socialism which was expanded by Karlmax and Frederic Engels. Historically luddism is categorized among the utopian socialism of Robert Owen and Thomas More that appeared in the early days of industrialization in Europe.

FAILURES OF LUDDISM

1. The luddites failed to recognize their real enemy.

They condemned and attacked machines accusing them of their problems like unemployment so they believed that the destruction of machines would provide solutions to their problems. They did not recognize that their enemy were the factory owners who exploited them.

2. The movement was not nationwide.

Luddism was small in scope, it operated in a few areas such as Lancashire, Yorkshire and Cheshire which were the only industrial towns much touched by the early stage of industrial revolution. This denied it mass support from other parts of the country making it easy for it to be destroyed.

3. Use of poor methods in the struggle.

The movement was poorly organized, mostly operated in forests especially the shire wood forests and mainly employed violence through which they surprisingly and mostly at night attacked factories to destroy machines. This made them lack proper coordination and more so the government took it as a chance to treat them like rebels to be crashed.

4. The movement was sporadic.

Luddism lacked consistence and effectiveness, it was active during economic crisis when wages went down and when workers experienced hard conditions of work and was dormant during economic boom when industrial owners could improve wages and working conditions.

5. They lacked permanent members.

Members of luddism were not registered neither were they certified so could join and leave whenever they wished. This weakened the movement because in such arrangement, it lacked committed members.

6. Financial hardships.

Members were financially weak to smoothly manage their movement’s activities. They mainly depended on their wages which indeed were not even enough for their sustenance. This limited their strength to pose a strong challenge to capitalist exploitation.

7. Immaturity and lack of enough experience.

The movement was established at the time when workers had no enough experience in running mass movements hence lacked the needed organizational and mobilization skills in carrying out their duties effectively.

8. The government supported the capitalists.

The English government sided with the capitalists to crush the luddites because it largely depended on the capitalists for state development as the capitalist contributed a lot to state revenue through tax payment.

However, much luddism did not last long, it is credited for having pioneered the formation of workers movements. It was the first to show the capitalist relations with workers needed urgent reform.

CHARTISM 1838-1848

Chartism was a nationwide working-class movement that agitated parliament reforms to achieve the socio-political demands of industrial workers in Britain.

The chartists aimed at gaining political rights and influence for the working classes. The movement got its name from people’s charter that listed the six political demands.it was founded by William Lovett, Fergus O’Conner and Henry Vincent.

THE SIX DEMENDS CONTAINED IN THE CHARTER

1. Universal manhood suffrage. They demanded that all men of 21 years and above be entitled to vote.

2. Equal electoral districts. Constituents (districts) that could have equal number of voters. So the electorate should be determined by number of people in the constituency and not the number of constituencies. this meant parliamentary representation according to population.

3. Abolition of property qualification of members of parliament.

4. Vote by a secret ballot. Purposely to ensure secrecy and to protect individuals.

5. Payments for members of parliament. To be paid salaries and not allowances so that poor men could afford to serve.

6. Annual parliamentary elections. They demanded that general elections for members of parliament be held every year instead of the seven years term.

PHASES IN THE FORMATION OF CHARTISM

a) The formative phase of Chartism. 1829-1837.

This was a period when the ground was being laid for the movements before it assumed a mass national character.

b) The popular phase of Chartism. 1838-1842.

This was a period when the movement assumed a national character and came into direct confrontation with the might of the ruling class.

c) The decline and disintegration of Chartism. 1843-1850.

The movement lost its cohesiveness. However, there were some episodes in this period when Chartism once again resumed its mass national character. However, these were essentially insignificant.

OBJECTIVES OF CHARTISM

1. They wanted reforms in a way to reduce worker’s exploitation by the capitalists.

2. They also demanded for political power by having workers’ representatives in the parliament (house of commons).

3. They wanted improved working and living conditions of workers. This included better housing and provision of transport facilities,etc

FACTORS / CAUSES OF CHARTISM

1. Effects of industrial revolution of 1750

This led to environmental degradation due to constant pollution with industrial wastes and chemical, poor working conditions of workers low social status and long working hours in textile industries of Lancashire and steel rolling industries in Sheffield. This led to formation of Chartism to struggle for better working conditions of workers.

2. The corn law of 1815

This law prohibited the importation of grain foodstuffs in Britain due to good harvest in agriculture from 1810, the corn law later led to shortage of food stuffs which resulted into an increase in prices of food stuffs in Britain. The brought suffering of the poor and low wages earners hence the formation of Chartism to struggle for living.

3. The economic slump of 1830’s

There was economic decline that hit the economy of Britain which resulted into the closure of factories in some areas of Britain like Derbyshire of midland region as a result many workers were laid off while those who remained on jobs were paid low wages. This led to the solidarity of low wage earners and unemployed to form the 1837 movement.

4. The poor law amendment of 1834

There was amendment of the poor law of 1601 which eliminated the unemployed people from accessing the free basic needs such as shelter, foodstuffs, clothes and medicine in Britain. Also it allowed high taxation to poor people to finance the Anglo-French economic wars of 1803 up to 1815. the government amended the Elizabeth poor law which forced many people to join the chartist movement so as to oppose the law amendment of 1884.

5. The collapse of the grand national traders union

This was formed by Robert Owen in 1834 with the aim of absorbing all other markets associations under this leadership the national traders union was immediately suppressed by the british government in 1838 whereby some leaders were jailed while others exiled hence forcing its supporters to join Fergus O’conner to form the 1838 movement in Britain.

6. The reform bill of 1832

This was passed by the parliament and it recognized the house of the lord which comprised of the dukes, bishops and kings appointees while the house of the commoner consisted of members elected by the people basing on the principle of property qualification of worth 40 pounds a year. The reform bill excluded many workers from participating in politics since they had no physical properties apart from their labour force thus the formation of 1838 movement.

THE ROLE OF THE REFORM BILL OF 1832 TO THE RISE OF WORKERS CONSCIOUSNESS AND WORKERS MOVEMENT.

1. It restricted the workers’ rights to vote. It rejected the franchise rights to all men above 21 years to vote as suggested by the workers to have representatives in the parliament and it maintained the property qualifications for one to vote yet workers had no properties.

2. It passed restrictive laws against workers. The parliament under the bourgeoisie passed the laws to prohibit protests and strikes from workers, the bill also illegalized the formation of association by the workers.

3. It gave much power to the bourgeoisie. This bill lowered the power of the nobbles which enabled the bourgeoisie to legalize the exploitation of the working class in Britain. iv. Through this bill the bourgeoisie did not represent the workers’ demands in the parliament to strengthen the capitalists’ interests hence the rise of worker’s consciousness in Britain.

ARCHIEVEMENTS OF CHARTISM

1. Chartism led to the development of democracy in Britain whereby workers were given representatives in the parliament and there was observation of equality to all members in Britain. It made the reform bill of 1832 to meet some of the demands of the middle and the working class by leaving property qualification for voting and this opportunity of voting and to be voted to all adults with mental health in Britain.

2. It archived five demands from the people’s charter, Chartism pressurized the government to recognize the five demands of the 1838 charter in Britain. For example, abolition of the property qualification in 1857, secret ballot introduced in 1872, secret ballot introduced equal constituencies formed in 1885, monthly salary payments in 1911 and universal manhood suffrage in 1911 which promoted emancipation of women in politics. It only failed to implement the annual election of the members of the parliament in Britain.

3. Chartism led to the rise of workers consciousness. It created awareness among workers after putting clearly the rights of all workers. Chartism drafted peoples charter and presented the petition of the workers grievances to the parliament in 1838, therefore Chartism showed that unity is important in order to attain any achievement. This also resulted in the creation of unity and solidarity among the workers all over the world hence achievement of the Chartism movement in Europe.

4. It led to the formation of stronger political party in Britain which extended the right to vote the British labour party was supported by industrial workers, merchants and the non-religious groups while conservative party was dominated by the clergy, land owners and the military personnel.

5. Chartism laid foundation for the formation of future working-class movements; it demonstrated the importance of working-class voice to industrial owners. Chartism paved a way to the rise and formation of new model trade unions in 1850 led by Robert Applegate for carpenters, William Allan for engineers and many others.

6. Improvement in working conditions in the whole Europe. It prohibited the use of women and child labour and medical care was improved while holiday wages and pension were given to workers hence an achievement of Chartism.

7. It achieved in reducing the working hours from 12 hours to 8 hours a day, also the british government was able to pass a series of laws protecting workers on their working places.

REASONS FOR THE FAILURE OF CHARTISM

1. Strong opposition from the british government

The government constantly supported the bourgeoisie by passing hash measures against the charter. Chartists demonstrations and riots were suppressed by the police in Birmingham, some of its leaders example William Lovett were imprisoned in 1839 of Warwick jail and Fergus O’Conner was imprisoned in 1839 in York castle jail for causing disturbance in Birmingham town.

2. Divergent approaches of the leaders

This caused disunity among the chartist members in the struggle from the government. Some leaders wanted to use violence for example John frost, Peter Baddeley and Thomas Mike while other people like William Lovett wanted the use of peaceful means by persuading and intimidating the government hence the failure of Chartism.

3. Lack of strong committed leaders

Who could stand firmly in their struggles of Chartism movement. After the appointment of Fergus O’Conner as a member of parliament for Nottingham forests in 1840 then he became speechless of workers Grievances and his death in1885 left a political vacuum that led to the failure of Chartism movement in Britain.

4. Differences in political ideology

Some chartists believed in constitution capitalism while others believed in socialism. The idea of socialism of Karl Max and Fredrick Engels was strongly opposed by capitalists, nationalists like Keynes, Malthus and Ricardo. This resulted into the failure of Chartism movement.

5. The financial strength of capitalist industrial owners compared to chartists.

Capitalists owned everything and were supported by the British government. Therefore, the chartists were too weak to register any destruction to capitalist investment as they were suppressed by the government hence its failure. Also the good economic harvest of 1840’s that relieved most of European peasants, the good economic harvest led to decline in chartist agitation from the British government thus forcing most of the members to withdraw from the government by 1848.

6. Chartism lacked permanent membership

Which could support its struggle, the members of the movement joined whenever they wanted and withdraw without information. This weakened the chartist operation in Britain. Also financial inability. Most of chartist members were poor peasants who did not possess enough income to oppose the exploitation from the capitalists, this weakened the activities.

METHODS USED BY CHARTISTS AND LUDDISTS IN THEIR STRUGGLE

1. They used peaceful demonstrations in urban centers like London and Birmingham so as to pressurize the British government to respond to their demands. This was practiced by workers refusing to work until the industrial owners to fulfill their demands especially the luddites.

2. They adopted negotiations and collective bargaining between workers, employees and the government. This was intended by the chartists in order to bring good relationship in the working environment of Europe.

3. They used public media by publishing pamphlets, the chartists published books such as peoples charter in 1838, the social and news papers, they used literature work in expressing their demands.

4. Chartists adopted boycotting of manufactured commodities from british in order to make capitalists listen to their demands.

5. Chartists also held public rulers that united workers both from rural and urban centers such as the London meeting of 1836 which helped them to show their grievances to the british parliament.

6. Chartists used written charters and petitions of 1838 to the british parliament to accept to accept their demands.

7. Through the use of violence like strikes and riots by the help of the great Enoch hammers and salt from the rise of luddites in

8. Lancashire, Bedfordshire and Yorkshire in the regions of midland while Chartism operated in Nottingham Forest, Sheffield, Liverpool and Birmingham.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN CHARTISM AND LUDDISM IN EUROPE

1. Luddism and Chartism were dominated with both violent and non-violent methods like strikes, riots, boycotts and petition in their struggle to attain their rights from their employees and the British government.

2. Both failed to achieve some of their objectives for example they failed to completely liberate workers from oppression and all forms of exploitation from the capitalist industrial owners.

3. Both of them had similar objectives of fighting for rights of workers by enabling them to attain good working conditions of rewarding the workers with fair payment of wages.

4. Both of them had a problem of lack of clear and coherent ideology which caused the division of leaders and their followers hence resulting into the failure in the operation of both movements.

5. Both of them resulted from bad economic conditions among the working class following class following the industrial revolution that brought the changes in the ways of production.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CHARTISM AND LUDDISM

1. Luddism was against the production of modern machines in production while Chartism was against the political and economic oppression and exploitation of workers.

2. Luddites battle ground were setting fire on capitalist plantations and dismantling factories while Chartism was against bourgeoisie class in Britain.

3. Luddism government was organised secretly and their leader by names of Nedd Ludd was an underground leader while Chartism operated openly.

NEW MODEL TRADE UNIONS 1850’s-1860’s

New model trade unions refer to the registered association of workers who share same skills from different professionals in Britain after the collapse of Chartism. It was formed in 1850s’ led by William Newton Allan. It amalgamated society of engineers, carpenters and joiners in 1861, George Edger amalgamated society of shoemakers, Edwin Coulson formed an association of brick layers and Daniel formed an association of iron factory workers after the decline of Chartism in Britain. The new model trade unions aimed at improving the working conditions of the engineers competed and joined shoe makers, bricklayers, engineers and carpenters.

Amalgamated society of professional workers strongly agitated for an increase of wage of workers and the improvement of the general working conditions, it therefore acted as a weapon for all workers to threaten their employer in Britain.

METHODS/ TOOLS USED BY NEW MODEL TRADE UNIONS

1. Moral persuasion that included convincing employers and the government officials by the leaders of trade unions to improve the working conditions and wages in Britain.

2. Negotiations, this was conducted through dialogues between trade unions and employers in discussing the working conditions and the working environment.

3. Retraining the members of the members of the trade unions to equip the members with the required skills. This made the unionists to demand for better wages from the bourgeoisie.

4. Petitions, whereby workers presented a list of demands to the parliament concerning the improvements of relationships between the workers and the employers.

5. Strikes, these included boycotts, demonstrations, etc. sometimes new model trade union adopted political demonstration in country side.

6. Riots and violence over capitalists industries and plantations so as to achieve the demands of the workers.

GENERAL FEATURES OF NEW MODEL TRADE UNIONS

1. The leaders tended to be more conservative with emphasis on negotiations and training of members rather than use of violence. This made new model trade union to be more respected than luddism and Chartism.

2. New model trade union consisted of more skilled workers which created no opportunity for employers to oppose their demands in Europe.

3. Members of the new model trade union restricted the total number of memberships with hope of preventing any fall in wages by keeping the available manpower scarce.

4. It used to save some funds aside with which helped them to solve some problems of the trade union and educating its members through newspapers and meetings.

5. It had well defined goals advanced by workers that had to be present to the employers.

LESSONS / ACHIEVEMENTS OF NEW MODEL TRADE UNION

1. It planted the seeds of professionalism in demanding for the workers rights in many parts of the world especially the use of petitions, negotiations and dialogues between employers and employees.

2. It insisted on the use of non-violent struggles in addressing workers demands.

3. It advanced political and economic rights of workers in Europe.

4. It provided education to workers to value their efforts rather than being cheap to the bourgeoisie.

5. It created a class of skilled workers by encouraging creativity and self learning in Europe.

WEAKNESSES OF THE NEW MODEL TRADE UNION

1. Exclusion of unskilled laborers.

One major weakness was their exclusive nature. These unions only accommodated skilled and semiskilled laborers, thereby isolating unskilled workers who formed the majority of the workforce. This exclusion created a gap in representation and weakened the collective power of labour as a whole.

2. Narrow focus on economic issues.

The new model trade unions concentrated mainly on economic interests such as wages, working hours and job security. They gave little attention to social and political issues affecting workers such as healthcare, housing and voting rights. This limited their broader impact on improving workers overall welfare.

3. Opportunistic nature. These unions were often opportunistic only pushing for reforms that benefited their members directly. Their lack of solidarity with the broader working class limited their ability to form united fronts during struggles.

4. Overreliance on peaceful methods.

The new model trade unions heavily relied on peaceful and legal methods of struggle, such petitions and negotiations. While this was seen as civilized, it often delayed the attainment of their goals especially when employers refused to compromise although some unions resorted to violent methods like strikes and demonstrations, these were rare and not well organised.

5. Dependency on stable economic conditions

This model of unionism worked best in times of economic prosperity. It was ill-suited for periods of economic depression of 1873, these unions lost much of their relevance and power as their relevance and power, as their moderate strategies failed to address the severity of the crisis.

THE SECOND PHASE OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (1840’s – 1870’s)

The second phase of industrial revolution which took place between the 1840s and 1870s, marked the second phase of European industrialization especially in Britain. During this period European industrialization moved from simple to complex and sophisticated industrial technologies. Thus, the second industrial revolution laid the grounds for the modern industrialized world, characterized by rapid technological advancements, global economic expansion and social change.

FEATURES OF THE SECOND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION.

The second industrial revolution which began around the 1840s and lasted until the outbreak of world war 1 in 1914, was a major transformation in the nature of industrialization. Unlike the first phase which focused on textile iron and coal the second phase was driven largely by “pure” science particularly chemistry and electricity.

This revolution saw dramatic changes in technology, production and global trade.

1. Use of science in industry.

A major feature of the second industrial revolution was the practical application of scientific knowledge. fields such as chemistry and electricity were applied to industry leading to the growth of sectors like steel, chemicals and electrical engineering for example, electricity transformed both manufacturing and everyday life, powering machines and lighting cities.

2. Collaboration between scientists and industry.

This period witnessed close cooperation among scientists, entrepreneurs and government officials driving innovation. Government sponsored institutions and universities that promoted scientific research leading to significant industrial break through. This integration led to better machines and industrial methods.

3. Expansion of technical education.

Technical training expanded, helping workers gain new skills. This enabled the division of labour and the invention of machines that replaced or improved human labour. Education helped build a more skilled workforce that supported industrial growth.

4. Transport and communication development.

New transport systems like railroads, steamships, canals and roads emerged improving the movement of goods and people. This enhanced global trade and helped industries access markets more efficiently.

5. Urbanization and industrial cities.

Rapid industrialization led to the growth of cities especially in countries like Germany, Belgium and USA. Towns expanded around factories drawing rural populations to urban areas for work. Cities became hubs of production and commerce.

6. Capital investment and global influence.

Britain and France invested heavily in infrastructure in other countries, helping spread industrialization. This foreign capital combined with political power allowed western nations to expand their influence in Africa and Asia, often colonization.

7. Trade protectionism.

This period initially supported free trade, marked by treaties like the Anglo-French commercial treaty of 1860. However, the economic depression of 1873 led to the return of trade barriers.

8. Rise of new industrial powers.

Industrial leadership shifted from Britain and France to other nations such as Germany, USA, Belgium and Italy. For example, Germany focused on heavy industry and chemicals, while the USA became a leader in mass production and machinery.

Note. In conclusion, the second industrial revolution was marked by science-driven innovation, global trade, improved transportation and the rise of new industrial powers. It reshaped societies, economies and international relations, setting the foundation for modern industrial world.

INDUSTRIALIZATION IN GERMANY AND THE USA – REASONS

1. Late industrialization in Germany

Germany industrialized late than other European countries because it was divided into many small states until unification in 1871. this division hindered economic development despite Germany’s rich coal and iron resources. Once unified, the country transitioned smoothly from feudalism to capitalism, leading to rapid industrial growth.

2. Support from the Junkers

Unlike Britain and France, Germany did not undergo political revolutions instead, the Junkers (German landed gentry) created a supportive environment for emerging capitalists after the unification. They provided both political and financial backing, avoiding the disruptions that revolutions caused in other countries.

3. Germany’s industrial rise

By the 1890’s, Germany had surpassed Britain in steel production and led the world in chemical industries. German campanies also formed powerful monopolies, like cartels and trusts. This helped Germany became one of the world’s leading industrial powers alongside the USA by the early 20^th century.

4. Late industrialization in USA

Like Germany, the USA was a latecomer to industrialization. One reason was that it lacked a feudal system, which had driven early transformation in western Europe. Without feudal lords, the US didn’t have a class of people who could evolve into industrial capitalists early on.

5. Impact of civil war

The American civil war (1861-1865) played a major role in triggering industrialization. It enriched early capitalists like John D. Rockefeller, J.P Morgan and Cornelius Vanderbilt who led the growth of industries like oil, steel and railroads. This marked the USA’s shift from competitive to monopoly capitalism in the late 1890’s.

6. Role of resources and immigrants.

Americas vast natural resources land, water, coal and iron along with its large territory helped industrial growth. In addition immigrants especially Europeans and british contributed to labor and innovation. Forinstance, british immigrants became key mechanists and managers in the USA industries during the 19^th centuries.

Conclusively, both Germany and USA industrialized later than countries like Britain but by the late 19^th and early 20^th centuries, they had became global industrial leaders. Their success was due to political unification, rich resources, capitalist support and immigrant labor.

IMPACTS OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

1. Growth of industrial capitalism

In western Europe and USA, industrialization led to a dramatic expansion of the financial sector. Banks that once functioned only as storage for valuables and lenders for elites evolved into institutions that played a key role in financing commerce and long-term investments. This development promoted industrial capitalism, especially during the 19^th century.

2. Expansion of colonialism

With increased industrial output, there was a growing demand for manufactured goods and raw-materials. This led European industrial powers to seek colonies in Asia and Africa. These regions were ideal due to their rich natural resources and large populations, which could serve as markets for European goods. Colonization thus became a strategy for absorbing surplus capital and raw material sourcing

3. End of slavery and rise of legitimate trade.

Industrial revolution also contributed to the abolition of slave trade and slavery replacing it with what was termed “legitimate trade” this new form of trade allowed European powers to exploit African resources such as rubber, palm oil and coconut. Which were essential for lubricating machines and other industrial purposes.

4. Global economic shifts.

Asia and Latin America became key suppliers of agricultural and natural resources needed for European industries. These global trade dynamics further entrenched competitive capitalism and contributed to western economic dominance.

5. Emergence of new social classes.

The industrial revolution created two main classes, the bourgeoisie (owners’ capital) and the proletariats (factory workers). Factory workers lived under strict rules, poor conditions and were exploited for super-profits. This class structure contributed to social inequality and class struggles.

6. Urbanization and lifestyle changes.

People moved from rural areas to urban centers in search of factory jobs. Cities grew rapidly and many workers came to depend entirely on wages for survival.

7. Technological and industrial competition.

By the 1870s countries like Germany, japan, the USA, and Italy began industrializing rapidly competing with Britain. This competition shifted the global economic power center and drove innovation.

Exercise

You are given opportunity to advise the government on how to develop industries in Tanzania. Use the knowledge gained from this chapter to advise the government on how to promote industrialization.

To develop industries in Tanzania, the government can learn from the experiences of western Europe and the USA during the industrial revolution. The following strategies can help promote sustainable industrialization.

1. Invest in infrastructure.

Good transport systems (roads, railways, ports) and reliable electricity supply are essential. Just as railroads and steamships boosted industry in the 19^th century, modern infrastructure will support factories and trade.

2. Support technical education.

Establish technical colleges and vocational training to create a skilled labour force. In Europe technical education led to machine innovation and efficient production.

3. Encourage local and foreign investment.

Like Britain and France, Tanzania should attract both local entrepreneurs and foreign investors through favourable tax policies and legal protection for businesses.

4. Adopt liberal economic policies.

A stable, free-market system with reduced trade barriers (as seen in Europe during the laissez-fair period) can stimulate competition and innovation.

5. Utilize natural resources.

Tanzania has minerals, land, and water that can be used to support manufacturing industries. Like the USA the government should manage these resources wisely for industrial gain.

6. Strengthen institutions and governance.

The state should protect private property and enforce fair laws without overregulating businesses, encouraging economic freedom and confidence.

By applying these strategies, Tanzania can lay a strong foundation for sustainable industrialization and economic growth.

REVISION EXERCISE

1. With examples, compare the British industrial revolution to that in Belgium, Germany, France and the USA, between the 1840s and 1870s.

2. How did the invention of the spinning jenny revolutionise textile industries during the first phase of industrial revolution in Britain?

3. With examples, account for the transition from cottage to factory system.

4. Relate the growth of the factory system to the rise of working-class consciousness in Britain.

5. Explain why Britain was the first country to industrialise in Europe.

6. Discuss the way workers struggled against capitalism in the period from the early 1800s to the 1870s.

7. How did the bourgeois government in Britain react to the six Chartist demands?

8. Show the connection between Chartism and Labour Party in Britain.

9. Assess the significance of Trade Unionism in Europe,

10. Discuss the contribution of electricity in pushing innovation and industrial growth during the second phase of industrial revolution.

11. Assess the impact of James Watt’s steam engine on the first phase of industrial revolution