Chapter Three: The Origin and Development of African Literature in English – Literature in English Form Five

The usefulness of African oral literature in the absence of literacy.

Takeaways

Before the coming of whites, the continent of Africa had its oral traditions, a form of communication through which knowledge, art, ideas and cultural materials are generated, received, preserved, and transmitted from one generation to another through speech or song. In the early 20th century, the oral tradition theory emerged to guide the study of this literary tradition popularised by Kenneth Bailey. Based on this theory, oral literature is characterised by additive thought and expressions, orality, aggregative thinking (formula-driven), repetition, flexibility and variation, dynamism, and mnemonic devices for memory. Thus, the current African literature in English is rooted in the interaction between African oral literature and Western literary traditions (oral-literacy interaction). They include folktales, proverbs, riddles, tongue-twisters, fairy tales, legends, myths, epics, songs, oral poems, charms, prayers, and dances.

Takeaways

Western literary traditions, or European literary traditions, are conventions of Western culture or European civilisations. These literary traditions have a significant influence on the literature, prose, drama and poetry of Western and European countries. Due to colonialism, their influence has extended to African literature.

Takeaways

Ancient Greek Literature

This is the body of writings in the Greek language whose history extends from the 1st millennium BC to the present day. We can divide the history of ancient Greek literature into three periods: Archaic (lasts before the end of the 6th century BC), Classical (5th and 4th centuries BC), and Hellenistic and Greco-Roman (3rd century BC onward). The famous writers of the classical ancient Greek literature were Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. Sophocles is famous for his tragedies about Oedipus, particularly Oedipus the King and Antigone; Euripides is known for Bacchae and Cyclops while Aeschylus wrote The Persians and Prometheus Bound.

Ancient Latin Literature

This literary tradition began and developed through translation from Greek. Latin authors used Greek sources to create their new form of literature around the 3rd century BC. Latin literature includes essays, histories, poems, plays, and other writings written in the Latin language.

Takeaways

The Medieval period extends from the 5th to the 15th century. This period was also called the Middle or Dark Ages because scholars believed it was between two important periods: the Classical Period and the Renaissance. During this period, covering ca. 450-1450, Britain saw many invasions, unrests, battles and changes that shaped the country into a powerful nation. The medieval period is long and can be divided into three lesser periods: the Anglo-Saxon, Anglo-Norman, and Middle-English periods. The Western countries produced many verses and prose during this period, but many of these texts were anonymous. Medieval Europe became the cradle of new developing genres. It brought ballads, allegorical poetry, Latin hymns, sacred songs, lullabies, fabliaux, debates, court epics, popular epics, beast epics, tale cycles, chivalric romances, mystery plays, miracle plays, and morality plays. As many of these literary types suggest, a great deal of medieval literature is folk literature, and it is linkable to the oral traditions of bards, jongleurs, and troubadours.

Takeaways

Renaissance is a French word denoting “rebirth.” It was a movement developed in Italy in the 14th century and spread throughout Europe, reaching its peak in the 16th century. It came after the medieval era, when European art and literature were revived under the influence of classical models. The characteristics of the Renaissance era were humanism, nationalism and a new approach to life. The Renaissance time made people excited about art, buildings, stories, and learning new things. People started using their own languages more and exploring science. They also rediscovered old Greek and Roman knowledge. This discovery happened because more Europeans could read about ancient times. When Constantinople fell in 1453, many Greek and Roman scholars moved to Europe, making people even more interested in the past. Shakespeare was a famous writer during this time.

Neo-classical Literature

Neo-classicism was a literary and artistic movement from approximately the early 1600s until the late 1700s. It was prevalent across Europe, with some of the most prominent literary trends occurring in England. It focused on imitating aspects of Ancient Greek and Roman art and the literature found in the original Ancient Greek and Roman texts called classical texts. Young artists and writers became increasingly more aware of the artistic cultures of Ancient Greece and Rome and then used them in their art. Neo-classicism differed from the previous Renaissance period as it was against too much use of individualism and imagination in literature. It focused on more universal issues and portrayed humans as much more nuanced and flawed. Neo-classic texts have strict formal order and structure; they focus on and discuss social issues. Neo-classical texts considered humans to be flawed. Thus, in neo-classical texts, characters are flawed and nuanced, just as capable of doing badly as doing good. Ancient Greek and Roman texts thematically focused heavily on displaying logical and sensible viewpoints. This assertion means texts rationalised things by focusing on what is known rather than not.

Takeaways

Different scholars explain African literature as a body of traditional oral and written literature(s) in African languages and texts written by Africans in European languages. African literature written in European languages dates primarily from the 20th century onward. It was born primarily in the education systems imposed by colonialism, with models drawn from Europe. However, the African oral traditions exerted their influence on this literature. Some of the African writers across time include Chinua Achebe, Christopher Okigbo, Wole Soyinka, Kofi Awoonor, Ngugi wa Thiongo, Peter Abrahams, Nurrudin Farah, David Rubadiri, Dennis Brutus, Severine Ndunguru, Flora Nwapa, Grace Ogot, Ama Ata Aidoo, Martha Myungi and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie. These writers have influenced the literary landscape of Africa, and their outstanding texts have also brought them international acclaim.

Takeaways

The development of African literature has undergone several stages. The first one was pre-colonial African literature. Pre-colonial African literature is the body of literature produced during and about pre-colonial Africa. This literature includes both oral literature (including prose, short formulaic expressions and poetry) and written narratives. Pre-colonial written literature is also concerned with slave narratives dating from the Atlantic slave trade between the 15th and 19th centuries. Under this period, African literature is said to have gained roots in the writings of slaves who had regained their freedom. Some slaves used their literature to fight back against slavery. They, therefore, published stories expressing their horrific experiences in the yoke of slavery. More so, African literary writings before colonialism are often regarded to include works produced before the advent of colonisation in Africa. Primarily, these works described Africans’ social, political, and economic lives and celebrated their rich and diversified cultures. Authors of this time include Juan Latino, Jacobus Elisa, Phillis Wheatley and Ignatus Sanchos.

When talking about African literature, early European literary texts that depicted Africans, such as Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness and H-Rider Haggard’s King Solomon’s Mines, cannot be ignored. These texts depicted pre-colonial Africa as a dark continent and its inhabitants uncivilised.

Although it is set in contemporary times, modern African literature also depicts pre-colonial Africa. Also, despite being modern, such literature uses African oral literature. This oeuvre covers all oral literature materials collected and published by modern African writers. Such texts include Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart and No Longer at Ease, Flora Nwapa’s Efuru, Grace Ogot’s The Promised Land and Elechi Amadi‘s The Great Ponds.

Takeaways

The literary genres that flourished during the colonial period were poetry, play, and the novel. Colonialism and cultural exchange greatly influenced these genres. Notably, the contact between European colonial powers and Africans created cultural contacts during the colonial era, leading to the exchange of literary ideas and practices. Therefore, literary conventions from the two cultures were introduced into either of the communities through this contact. The marriage between Western and African literary conventions, such as the use of European languages and African literary traditions, enabled literary artists to produce great literary texts. In those texts, Europeans described the land and the people they conquered and occupied, as well as Africa and Africans, from their perspective. On the other hand, Africans who had been exposed to Western languages began to write in those tongues and by employing other Western literary conventions. They mainly wrote to air their experiences and grievances from colonial domination.

The colonial literature written by the colonised utilised the colonial language and literary techniques influenced by European and indigenous traditions, exploring themes related to colonisation, imperialism, and cultural clashes. It depicted the experiences of colonisers and colonised peoples, reflected power dynamics and hierarchies in colonial societies and criticised colonialism and its impact on individuals and societies.

Takeaways

Post-colonial African Literature

Post-colonial African literature refers to writings produced in the aftermath of colonialism. Most of this literature oeuvre was written by African authors in their home countries or diaspora. Post-colonial literature deals with colonial experience, decolonisation issues and the disillusionment of independent Africa. Postcolonial literature development is said to have followed the following three phases:

Mimicry and Ambivalence

This phase features writers imitating colonisers’ writing styles while also expressing feelings towards colonial rule. Writers in this phase are concerned with issues of identity, cultural hybridity, and the legacy of colonialism.

Nationalism and Resistance

This phase is introduced by writers who actively engage with themes of nationalism, resistance, and decolonisation to reclaim their cultural heritage, challenge colonial narratives, and affirm their independence.

Globalisation and Hybridity

This phase mainly harbours current literary writings that explore the impact of globalisation, migration, and diaspora on postcolonial societies. Writers in this phase often focus on issues of displacement, identities, and the complexities of living in a globalised world.

Postcolonial African literature is represented in short stories, poems, novels, essays, and plays. Examples of Postcolonial literary texts include Tayeb Salih’s Season of Migration to the North (1966), Ayi Kwei Armah’s The Beautiful Ones Are Not Yet Born (1969), Wole Soyinka’s A Play of Giant (1984), Ngugi wa Thiong’o’s A Grain of Wheat (1967) and Matigari (1986) Tsitsi Dangarembga’s Nervous Conditions (1988) as well as Chinua Achebe’s A Man of the People, to mention a few.

Most of the post-colonial literature(s) are devoted to the expression of disillusionment with independent Africa, racism, identity, freedom/independence, change/transformation, colonialism, oppression and nationalism, reformation of identity, neo-colonialism, civil war, and dictatorship.