Explanations and Definitions of Common Literary Terms

Common Literary Terms

Common Literary Terms: Literary terms refer to the technique, style, and formatting that writers and presenters employ to expertly emphasize, enrich, or strengthen their compositions.

Literary terms can refer to strategies used to make us laugh or witty tricks used by wordsmiths to coin new words or phrases. They may also include persuasion methods used by writers to persuade and motivate audiences to act. They challenge our everyday patterns of thinking with well constructed speeches directed toward both logical and emotional thinking.

Act.

An act is a major division of a play. It is the unit in which the play is divided. Acts are often subdivided into scenes.

Actor.

Is a man whose profession is acting on the stage, in drama, movies or television.Online movie streaming services

Actress.

Is a woman whose profession is acting on the stage, in drama, movies or television.

Aesthesis.

Aesthesis is concerned with tastes and approaches to what is pleasing to the senses. It is the taste that appeals to the mind and senses.

Literature is aesthetic because it creates taste and beauty to the readers, watchers and listeners(audience),

African Literature.

There has been a debate among scholars on what African literature is.

(i) What is written by African writers? or

(ii) What is talking about African environment?

However the point to be noted here is that, African Literature is the one which is talking about African social realities.

Understanding African literature; One has to be aware of the history of Africa. That is different historical periods Africa had undergone as;

(i) Pre-colonial Era.

This shows how Africans lived before the advent of whites. During this era,

African authors were friends with African rulers.Eg. “Things fall apart” by Chinua Achebe

(ii) Colonial Era.

This is literature during colonialism. It talks of colonial impacts such as Exploitation, Oppression, humiliation, struggles for independence etc. Eg “Weep not child” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o. During this time, still African authors maintained their friendship with African rulers.

(iii) Post-Independence Era.

This is literature after independence. It is centered on African governments, their oppressions, Exploitations, humiliations, selfishness, Nepotism, corruption and other injustices.

During this era, African authors became enemies of African authorities and most of them were exiled such as Chinua Achebe and Ngugi wa Thiong’o. Eg. “Man of the people” by Chinua Achebe.

Allegory.

Is a symbolic narrative that has not only a literal meaning, but a larger one understood only after reading the entire story or poem. Persons and actions in narrative either prose or verse are equated with meanings that lie outside the narrative itself.

The surface story is often the representation of the event, situation or period of the hidden meaning.

Eg. “An animal farm” by George Orwell is an allegory of Russian revolution in which dictatorship,

Murder and betrayal were the order of the day.

Alliteration.

Is the repetition of initial consonant sounds in a sequence of nearby words. Or the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginnings of nearby words.

Eg. If Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers, how many pickled peppers did Peter Piper pick? i.e sound /p/

Delicate diplomatic duties you know i.e sound /d/ (From “Building the nation” by Henry Barlow) Allusion.

Is passing a reference in a literary to historical person, place, event, or to another literary work or passage without explicit identification. Or Is a reference in a literary work to a person, place or book without explicit identification.Buy bestselling books online

Eg. Reference from holy books.

Ambiguity.

Refers to a word or statement which suggests two or more meanings. Is the expression of an idea in language that gives more than one meaning and leaves uncertainty.Buy bestselling books online

Eg. I’m going to the bank. Bank =Financial institution.

=An edge of a river.

Anadiplosis.

Is the repetition in which the last expression of one statement becomes the first expression in the following statement.

Eg. In the poem Africa by David Mandessi Diop, it appears;

The blood of your sweat

The sweat of your work

The work of your slavery

The slavery of your children

Analogy. Is a comparison between two objects that are essentially different but have at least one common quality.

Eg. Advertising cigarettes is like manslaughter.

Anapaest.

It is a metrical foot consisting of two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed syllable.

Anaphora.

This is the repetition of the word at the beginning of consecutive lines, verses or sentences.

Eg. The word Africa in the first three lines of the poem “Africa” by David Mandessi Diop which runs;

Africa my Africa

Africa of proud warriors in ancestral savannahs

Africa of whom my grandmother sings

Anastrophe.

Is a figure of speech in which the normal word order of Subject-Verb- Object is changed. For example Subject-Verb-object might be changed to object-verb-subject.

Eg. Ten thousands saw I at a glance.

Anecdote

This is a short, interesting or amusing story about a real person or an event.

Antagonist.

Is a character who opposes the Protagonist. Antagonist is also a major character but he/she is constantly in opposition to the Protagonist. He/she is normally in frequent quarrel with the

Protagonist and that’s why the story moves on.

Anthology.

Is a collection of selected works of either poetry or prose. An anthology normally contains works from different authors.

Eg. Selected poems published by the Tanzania institute of Education Antihero/Antiheroine.

Is a main character in a literary work who lacks heroic qualities such as courage and morality, but is admired by the audience regardless his/her weaknesses.

Antithesis.

Is a literary technique in which the opposite or contrasting statements are balanced for emphasis.

Eg. Man proposes, God disposes: Speech is silvern, but silence is golden.

We must learn to live together as brothers, or perish together as fools. Apostrophe.

Is a direct address to the dead, an absent or a personified idea that cannot hear.

Eg. In the whole poem of Africa by David Mandessi Diop, the poet/persona is talking addressing Africa as if it were a human being or Ooh!, death where are you.

Apotheosis.

Refers to a deliberate failure to complete a sentence.

Eg. Be gentle my……… Ah………

Archaism.

It is a figure of speech in which a used phrase or word is considered very old fashioned and outdated. It can be a word, a phrase, a group of letters, spelling, or syntax.

Archaisms are expressions which are no longer used in everyday language. They are considered to be outdated.

Art.

Is the application of human creative skills and imagination in visual forms such as sculpturing, weaving, pottery, painting and literature producing works to be appreciated primarily for their beauty and emotional power. Art is a work produced by human creative skills and talents.

Art for art’s sake.

Is a doctrine that looks at literature as purely aesthetic. That means that the doctrine does not look at literature as being related to the society. It maintains that literature should not be associated with anything in the real world.

Literature is rather considered to have its own world.

Aside.

Is a dramatic device in which a character speaks to the audience a speech which is unheard by other characters on stage. An aside is usually a brief comment, rather than a speech such as monologue and soliloquy.

Eg. In the play “The Government Inspector” by Nikolai Gogol there is a plenty use of asides.

Assonance.

Is the repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds in a sequence of nearby words.

Eg. Bride of quietness though foster child silence i.e sound /ai/

Audience.

These are people listening, watching or reading a literary work.

Auditory imagery.

Is the imagery representing sound.

Author.

Is an individual who by his/her intellectual and imaginative power, create from his or her experience a reading literary work. The term is mostly used in prose rather than drama.

Autobiography.

Is the history of the life of a person written by himself.

E.g “An Autobiography of Malcom x” that was written by himself.

Ballad.

Is a narrative poem that tells a story. Eg. “Ballad of the Landlord” by Langston Hughes.

Biography.

Is the history of life of a person written by someone else.

Blurb.

Is a short description of a literary work or a book written for promotional purposes, appearing on the back cover of a book or in an advertisement.Buy bestselling books online

Bound form /bound verse poems .

This refers to poems that strictly follow the poetic conventions or principles especially of meter and rhyme. They are also referred to as Traditional poems.

Eg. “If we must die” by Claude Mc kay.

Cacophony.

Is a language which is perceived as harsh, rough and unmusical. It is sometimes referred to as Dissonance Eg.Toundi’s father tells his son “…..

Your way back into the house will pass through my anus”(From “Houseboy” by Ferdinand Oyono, p11)

Cast of characters.

This is a list of characters in a script of a play, usually in order of their appearance. This list is usually found at the beginning of the script. Central characters.

These are characters who play an important role in a story. These are the drivers of the story in which the plot and resolution of conflicts resolve around them.

Chants.

These are prayer songs sung for religious purposes.

Character.

Is any participant in the action of a literary work.

E.g Toundi is a character in the novel “Houseboy” by Ferdinand Oyono.

NB: Types of characters

1. Major/ central characters

2. Minor characters

3. Flat characters

4. Round characters

5. Dynamic/Developing characters

6. Static characters

7. Protagonist

8. Antagonist

9. Realistic characters

10. Non realistic characters

11. Stock/Stereotype characters

12. Foil

13. Expository character

14. Dramatic character

15. Symbolic character

Major/Central characters. These are characters who play an important role in a story. These are the drivers of the story in which the

plot and resolution of conflicts resolve around them.

Minor characters.

These are characters who do not play an important role in a story. These are the characters who take small part but they help the major characters to develop events.

Flat character.

Is a character who is presented only in an outline without much individualized details. Or The character whose personalities are not complex.

Round character.

Is a complex and fully realized individual. OR is a character who has complex personality.

Dynamic/Developing characters.

These are characters who change over time in a story, usually major or central characters.

Static characters

These are characters who don’t change overtime. Their traits and personalities do not change. A static character is the kind of character who remain the same throughout the literary work and in most cases there isn’t much to learn about such character

Protagonist.

Is a character with positive traits and the audience love him/her. This is a character playing a central role in a story.

Antagonist.

Is a character who opposes the Protagonist. Antagonist is also a major character but he/she is constantly in opposition to the Protagonist. He/she is normally in frequent quarrel with the Protagonist and that’s why the story moves on.

Realistic characters.

These are characters who feature true human traits. They are imaginary characters but they resemble true human beings in their behaviors. Using realistic characters make the work of art reflect reality.

Non realistic characters. These are characters who do not feature true human traits

Stock/Stereotype characters.

Are character types that occur repeatedly in a particular literary genre, and so are recognizable as part of the conventions of the form. In other words stock characters are the characters borrowed from other literary works recognized by readers.

Foil.

Is a character usually the antagonist who shows contrast against the Protagonist.

Expository character.

Is a character that is described or discussed either by the author or by another character.

Dramatic character.

Is a character in action. From his/her speech and recorded sounds, we make deductions about his/her personality,attitude and relationship with other characters.

Symbolic character.

A Symbolic character is the one whose presence in the work of literature stands for or represents an idea ( political, social, economic etc such as corruption, dictatorship, greed. ) in a society.

Characterization.

Is the author’s creation of the participants in his/her literary work. Chorus.

Is the part of a song or music that is repeated several times.

Chronological plot.

This is a straight forward plot in which events move consecutively from the beginning to the end. This type of plot is of great advantage as it helps the readers to understand the literary work more easily.

Climax.

This is the highest point in which the conflict reaches the its peak. It is the part which creates interest or

suspense to the readers or audience. It is the moment of greatest danger or decision making for the Protagonist. In other words, climax

is the most exciting moment in the story.

Code-mixing.

Is the mixing of elements of two or more languages or language varieties in the same act of communication?

Eg. Changanya na Sodium chloride halafu shake.

Code-switching.

Is a change by a speaker from one language or language variety to another during the same act of communication.

Eg. Nitakutembelea kesho though I won’t say the exact time.

Comedy.

It is a type of drama which is funny or humorous because it always make the audience laugh.

E.g. “The Government Inspector” by Nikolai Gogol.

Comedian.

Is a person who entertains people by telling jokes.

E.g. A Nigerian comedian “Basket Mouth”

Comic.

Is anything in a literary work whether a character, event or utterance that is funny or humorous. Communication.

Is the transfer of information from one individual to another.

Complication.

Is the part of a dramatic plot at which the affairs become tense. It is the part leading to the climax.

Conflict.

Is the struggle, quarrel or misunderstanding between the characters in the work of art.

E.g, The protagonist is always in conflict with the antagonist in a literary work.

Connotation.

Refers to an extra/additional meaning of a word. In literature, normally denotation is an emotional meaning.

Eg. Juma is a lion. Lion =a courage/strong person

Consonance.

Is the repetition of final consonant sounds in a sequence of nearby words.

Eg. Take your pick and pack your pack i.e sound /k/.

Content.

Refers to what is being said in a literary work. i.e what the author wants to say in his/her literary work. NB:Content includes the following elements.

1. Themes.

2. Topical Issues.

3. Messages/Teachings.

4. Philosophy/Ideology of the author.

5. Conflict.

6. Relevance.

Themes.

Theme is a central idea or purpose in a literary work. It is usually stated in a statement form.

Eg. Povetry, betrayal, Oppression, Irresponsibility etc.

Topical Issues.

These are words which lead to the themes.

Messages/Teachings.

Refers to lessons learned from the literary work. Each theme contains a lesson that a reader or audience learns.

Philosophy/Ideology of the author.

This is what the author believes. Philosophy of the author can be well known after reading more than two books of the same author. For example, Ngugi wa Thiong’o believes that African governments perpetuate colonial regime, What has changed is only the colour of the rulers.Buy bestselling books online

Conflict.

Refers to misunderstanding within, between or among two opposite parts.

It can be a personal conflict, person to person, person to society or society to society.

Relevance.

Refers to the relationship between what is revealed in a literary work and what is happening in the society. Most of African literary works are relevant to African societies.

Contrast.

Refers to closely arranged things with strictly different characteristics. It is sometimes defined as a literary device by which one element is thrown into oppositional to another for the sake of emphasis or clarity.

Eg. He was dark, sinister and cruel; she was radiant, pleasant and kind. Costumes.

Refers to clothes worn by actors and

actresses on the theatre during performance. They are meant to suggest the actor/actress appear like the intended person.

They include trousers, suit, dress, jackets coats etc.

Couplet.

Is a stanza with two lines.

Critic.

Is a person who judges the value or quality of a literary work. Critics range from reviewers such as journalists to literary scholars who study and give informed discussions of incidents presented in literary works.

Criticism.

Is the overall term applied for studies concerned with defining, classifying, analysing, interpreting and evaluating works of literature.

Curtain.

This is the heavy material that screens/blocks the stage from the audience. It is sometimes defined as a piece of thick, heavy cloth that hangs in front of the stage in the theatre.

Dead Metaphor.

is the metaphor that has been used so frequently and hence has became a common expression. In other words, dead metaphor Is the metaphor that has lost its metaphoric status due to frequent use. Eg. Time is money, The heart of the mater.

Denotation.

Refers to the basic meaning of a word found in the dictionaries.

Eg. This is a lion. Lion = an animal.

Denouement.

This is the final part of the story. Denouement is the end of the story as conflicts are resolved and some mysteries are unraveled. This is the part of a plot in which the central conflict is resolved and the consequences for the Protagonist are already dissolved. Denouement is sometimes known as Resolution.

De-personification.

Is the figure of speech that gives a human being the qualities of an inanimate or non living objects Eg. The man’s stony hands caused him to drop the plate he was holding

Descriptive poems.

These are poems giving picture in words. In other words, a descriptive poem is stated as a poem that uses detailed words to create an image of a person, animal or inanimate object. Eg. “Perfect woman” by William Wordsworth.

Deus x Machina.

Is one among the play actors who acts like a god whose by his judgement and commands resolves the dilemma of the human character. He/she has an unexpected power saving a seemingly hopeless situation, often unrealistic.

Dialogue.

Is the conversation between two or more people. It can be either verbal or written. Dialogue is mostly used in plays/drama.

Diamond poems.

These are poems about two opposite topics. Topic A is always opposite to topic B and they are written a diamond shape.

E.g, a poem whose topic A is birth while topic B is death.

Birth Happy, active

Laughing, hoping, living Child, innocence, adult, problems Thinking, crying, suffering

Old, ill Death

Diction.

Is the choice and use of words for artistic effect in a literary work.

Mostly applied in poetry, refers to how language has been used or employed in a work of art

For instance ; The use of simple language, complex language, Formal and informal language, grammatical and ungrammatical language, scientific language, Religious language, Abusive/filthy language etc.

Didactic poems.

These are poems designed to give instructions to readers. Didactic poems are mainly for political or social messages.

Eg. “Your Pain” by Armando Guebuza.

Direct title.

This is the type of title which is direct to the content of the literary work. It has a direct relationship to the content of the literary work.

Eg. “Three suitors one husband” by Guillaume Oyono mbia.

Dirge.

Is a wailing song sung at the funeral or in commemoration of death.

Songs of this kind are used to create the mood of the play in play/drama. Dissonance.

Is a language which is perceived as harsh, rough and unmusical. It is also referred to as Cacophony

Eg. Toundi’s father tells his son “…..

Your way back into the house will pass through my anus”(From “Houseboy” by Ferdinand Oyono, p11).

Drama.

Is a play in a theatre or on television or a radio. Drama is a play that is being acted on a stage.

Dramatic character.

Is a character in action. From his/her speech and recorded sounds, we make deductions about his/her personality,attitude and relationship with other characters. Dramatic dialogue .

Is a type of poem in which two or more people are speaking to each other. Eg. “Dialogue” by Jared Angira.

Dramatic Irony.

Is a failure of a character to see or understand what is obvious to the audience. Dramatic irony also refers to a contradiction in a play between what a character thinks and what the reader or audience knows to be true. Situational irony is the moment when the narrator and the audience share the knowledge or experience that a character is ignorant of.

Eg. In “Oedipus the King” by Sophocles where Oedipus fails to realize what the audience knows- that he married his own mother.

Dramatic monologue.

Is a type of poem in which only one person is speaking addressing another person or other persons.

Eg. “If we must die” by Claude Mckay.

Dramatic poems .

These are poems in which a person is talking to another person or to other persons.

NB: Types of Dramatic poems Dramatic poems are divided into two types ;

(a) dramatic monologue

(b)dramatic dialogue

(a) Dramatic monologue.

Is a type of poem in which only one person is speaking addressing another person or other persons. Eg. “If we must die” by Claude Mckay.

(b) Dramatic dialogue .

Is a type of poem in which two or more people are speaking to each other. Eg. “Dialogue” Jared Angira.

Dream vision.

Is the mode of narrative in which the narrator falls asleep and dreams the events which are watched by the audience.

Dynamic(Developing) characters. These are characters who change over time in a story, usually major or central characters.

Dysphemism.

This is a derogatory or unpleasant term used instead of a pleasant or neutral one. e.g penis/vagina = private parts

Echoism.

These are words which imitate the sounds of their objects. Eg. tick-tock. (a clock sound)

Effect.

Is the impression that the artist wants his/her readers to get after reading his or her work.

Elegy .

Is a lyric poem that expresses sadness about someone who died. Or a lyric poem that commemorates someone who died. Eg. “An Elegy” by Laban Erapu.

Element.

Is the term used to refer to on of the two main parts of a literature work of form and content.

NB: There are two elements of literature namely;

1. Form

2. Content

1. Form.

Form in fiction refers to how a literary work is presented. It is sometimes defined as the structure of a literary work. Form is how author’s ideas are presented in the work of art. i.e how he sends his message.

Form includes the following parts.

1. Genre.

2. Title.

3. Setting.

4. Plot.

5. Style.

6. Characterization.

7. Language use.

8. Point of view.

9. Imagery.

Content.

Content refers to what is being said in a literary work. i.e what the author wants to say in his/her literary work. Content includes the following elements.

Themes.

Topical Issues.

Messages/Teachings.

Philosophy/Ideology of the author.

Conflict.

Relevance.

Themes.

Theme is a central idea or purpose in a literary work. It is usually stated in a statement form. Eg. Povetry, betrayal, Oppression, Irresponsibility etc.

Topical Issues.

These are words which lead to the themes.

Messages/Teachings.

Refers to lessons learned from the literary work. Each theme contains a lesson that a reader or audience learns.

Philosophy/Ideology of the author.

Conflict.

Refers to misunderstanding within, between or among two opposite parts.

It can be a personal conflict, person to person, person to society or society to society.

Relevance.

Refers to the relationship between what is revealed in a literary work and what is happening in the society. Most of African literary works are relevant to African societies.

Ellipsis.

Is the act of leaving out some words which a writer or an artist thinks are less important. The ellipted words may be filled by the reader in mind as he reads the work. In Poetry ellipsis is mainly used to save space. Ellipsis is mainly done in grammatical or minor word classes. Eg. “Way last week” instead of “On the way last week”( From “Ballad of the landlord”)

Empathy.

Is the projection of audience’s feelings into those of a character. That is to say that the audience undergoes the similar feelings with those of a character.

End rhyme.

This is when rhyming words are at the end of lines of a poem. English Poetry usually use only end rhyme. English sonnet.

This is the type of Sonnet with three quatrains and a concluding couplet.

It is sometimes known as Shakespearean sonnet named after its great practitioner, William Shakespeare.

The 1st quatrain rhymes “abab” The 2nd quatrain rhymes “cdcd” The 3rd quatrain rhymes “efef” The last couplet rhymes “gg” Hence English/Shakespearean sonnets rhyme “ababcdcdefefgg”. Eg. “LET ME NOT TO THE MARRIAGE OF TRUE MINDS” by William Shakespeare.

Enjambment.

Is a line which is broken to end in the next line. This is the continuation of the idea therefore the line does not end but instead continues. It goes beyond the end of one line and reaches the next line. Enjambment is mostly used in poems. Eg. The line of the poem “If we must die” by Claude MC Kay which runs;

“So that our precious blood may not be shed

In vain;then even the monsters we defy

Shall be constrained to honour us though dead!”

Enter stage direction.

Refers to a manuscript indicating the entrance onto the stage of a character or characters.

Epic.

Is a long dignified poem telling a story of heroic deeds. Epic sometimes refers to a long poem that deals with actions of great men and women or history of nations.

Epigram.

Is a term used for a statement, whether in verse or prose, which is terse, pointed and witty. It is a brief, interesting, memorable and sometimes surprising or satirical statement.

Epilogue.

Is a short address spoken by an actor at the end of a play that comments on the meaning of events in a play or looks ahead to expected events. i.e an afterword in any literary work.

Episode.

This refers to one part of a story that is broadcast on television or radio in several parts. Or is a brief section of a literary work or dramatic work that forms part of a connected series. In short, an episode is a brief unit of action in a literary or dramatic work.

Epitaph.

Is a brief poem or statement in memory of someone who deceased. Eponymy. This is when a name of a person is used as a synonym of something. Eg. Hitler for Nazism. Musolin for dictatorship.

Erotic literature.

Is the literary work that is characterized by sexual love. It takes love affairs as part of its aesthesis.

Essay.

Is a short composition in prose form that discusses about something or persuades people to accept something.

Euphemism.

Is a figure of speech which avoids the use of taboo or unpleasant words. Eg. Private parts is a Euphemism for vagina/penis.

Euphony.

Is a term applied to language which strikes the ear as smooth, pleasant and musical. Eg. And lucent syrops, tinct with cinnamon.

Exaggeration.

Is an evident exaggeration of the meaning for the sake of emphasis. Exaggaration is sometimes known as Hyperbole or Overstatement. Eg. I will fill all the rivers with my tears. Thanks a million

Exposition.

This is the first part of the plot which introduces the setting, characters and the basic situations. Exposition acts as the foundation of the story in the literary work.

Expository character.

Is a character that is described or discussed either by the author or by another character.

Extended metaphor.

This is the metaphor that is extended throughout a majority of the literary work or throughout the entire literary work.

Fable.

Is short story not based on facts often with animals as characters but convey a moral message. Characters in fables are frequently animals.

Fairy tale.

Is a type of imaginative writing that carries the reader into an invented world where laws of nature, as we know them do not operate.

Eg. Cinderella.

Falling action.

Is a part of plot which shows what happens to the characters after the Climax. Normally one side among the two conflicting parts loses power and hence tension decreases.

Farce.

This is a type of exaggerated comedy that that contains an absurd plot, ridiculous situations and humorous dialogue. The main purpose of farce is to keep the audience laughing

Fiction.

Fiction refers to story or writings that are not based on facts or truth. They are stories that tell about imaginary characters, events and places. Novels, plays poetry, folk tales, fables, myths and legends are fictitious works of art.

Figurative language.

Is the language which uses the so called figures of speech. Eg. The language which uses Similes, metaphors, hyperboles etc.

Figure(s) of speech.

Is any way of stating something other than in an ordinary way. Figures of speech are the expression of things that deviated from ordinary language. Figures of speech make literary works appear colourful and attractive to read.

Is a story or event recorded by a camera as a series of moving images and shown in a cinema or on television.

First person point of view.

Is the type of point of view in which the narrator is one of the characters in a literary work. The pronoun “I” is employed in narrating the story. This narrator tells us his or her experiences. Eg. Odili in “Man of the people” by Chinua Achebe.

Flashback.

Is a situation in a literary work that interrupts the sequence of events to repeat an event that was to occur earlier. It may be presented as character’s memory or story told by the character.

Flat character.

Is a character who is presented only in an outline without much individualized details. Or The character whose personalities are not complex.

Foil.

Is a character usually the antagonist who shows contrast against the Protagonist.

Folk drama.

Is a type of drama concerned with primitive rites of song and dance especially in connection with agricultural activities, which centered on vegetational deities and goddesses of fertility.

Folklore.

Is a collective name applied to sayings, verbal compositions and social rituals that have been handed down primarily by the word of mouth rather than in written form. Folk songs.

These include love songs, Christmas carols, work songs, religious songs, drinking songs, childer’s game- songs and many other types of lyric as well as narrative songs.

Folktale.

Is a short narrative in prose of unknown authorship which has been transmitted orally. Many of these tales eventually achieve written form. They are popular stories passed on in spoken form from one generation to the next. Folk tales are old stories that have been told again and again, often for generations.

Foreshadowing.

Refers to giving hints of future events in the literary work. i.e providing ideas that suggest events that have to occur in the future.

Form.

Refers to how a literary work is presented. It is sometimes defined as the structure of a literary work. Form is how author’s ideas are presented in the work of art. Form is the superstructure of a literary work.

NB: Form includes the following parts.

1. Genre.

2. Title.

3. Setting.

4. Plot.

5. Style.

6.. Characterization.

7. Language use.

8. Point of view.

9. Imagery.

Free verse poems.

This refers to poems that do not strictly follow the poetic conventions or principles of meter and rhyme. Eg. “BUILDING THE NATION” by Henry Barlow.

Free verse poem.

It refers to a poem that does not strictly follow the poetic conventions or principles of meter and rhyme. Eg. “BUILDING THE NATION” by Henry Barlow.

Genre.

Genre is a type of literature. This term is mainly applied to the three main genres of literature which are; Novel/prose, Play/drama and Poetry.

Geographical setting.

This is the place setting.

Eg. In Tanzania, Nigeria, Kenya.

Gustatory imagery.

Is the imagery representing taste.

Haiku.

Is a Japanese form of Poetry consisting of three unrhymed lines of five, seven and five syllables.

Eg.1

An old silent pond

A frog jumps into the pond, Splash? Silence again.

E.g.2

Light of the moon

Moves west, flowers’ shadows Creep eastward.

E.g.3

Night; and once again, the while I wait for you, cold wind turns into rain.

Hero

Is a male character or actor who overcomes, withstands and defeats problems in a story.

Heroic couplet.

Lines of iambic pentameter which rhyme in pairs: as, bb, cc and so on.

Heroine.

Is a female character or actress who overcomes, withstands and defeats problems in a story.

Historical drama.

This is the type of drama which expresses the history of a certain society. Also in this type of drama, the reader will find the elements of tragedy and comedy.

E.g. “Dedan kimathi” by keneth Wetene.

Humor.

Is something that is funny, comical or amusing. It can be a comic speech, a comic behavior or a comic appearance.

Hymn.

Is a song that celebrates God or expresses religious feelings and is intended primarily to be sung as part of a religious service.

Hyperbole.

Is an extravagant exaggeration of fact or possibility. Is an evident exaggeration of the meaning for the sake of emphasis. Hyperbole is also known as Exaggeration or Overstatement Eg. I will fill all the rivers with my tears. Thanks a million.

Ideology of the author

This is what the author believes. This can be well known after reading more than two books of the same author.For example, Ngugi wa Thiong’o believes that African governments perpetuate colonial regime, What has changed is only the colour of the rulers.

Idiom.

Is a phrase or statement whose meaning is not clear from the meaning of its individual words and which must be learnt as whole units. E.g. To kick the bucket=die.

Image.

Is the mental picture that authors create using figurative language. An image is the picture seen in the mind eye.

Imagery.

Is the use of figurative language to create mental pictures to the readers. Is the representation through language of sense experience.

NB: Types of Imagery.

There are about six types of Imagery.

1. Visual imagery.

2. Auditory imagery.

3. Olfactory imagery.

4. Gustatory imagery.

5. Tactile imagery.

6. Kinesthetic imagery.

Visual imagery.

Is the imagery representing seen objects.

Auditory imagery.

Is the imagery representing sound.

Olfactory imagery.

Is the imagery representing smell.

Gustatory imagery.

Is the imagery representing taste.

Tactile imagery.

Is the imagery representing touch.

Kinesthetic imagery

Is the imagery representing movement or tension.

Eg. Muscles and joints.

Imaginary setting.

Is the setting of a literary work to an imaginary place. Imaginary setting is used by authors to disguise the message if it directly touch the authorities concerned.

Eg. “His Excellence the Head of state” by Danny Safo.

Imitation.

Is the representation and re- presenting of human action or words in a new medium. It is copying someone’s action, a way of speaking etc.

Indirect title.

Is the type of title which has no relationship with the content of the literary work. Indirect title is normally used to disguise the message so that it can reach the masses without being prevented by authorities. Also referred to as Symbolic Title Eg. “I will marry when I want” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o.

Internal conflict

Is a conflict that takes place in a character’s mind

Internal rhyme.

This is when rhyming words are within the line of a poem. Eg. Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered weak and weary.

From “The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe

Irony.

Is the use of words in such a way that the intended meaning is completely opposite to their literal meaning. Eg. The bread is soft as a stone. NB: There are three types of Ironies;

Verbal Irony

Dramatic Irony

Situational Irony

Verbal Irony

Is the type of irony in which words are used to suggest the opposite of their usual meaning Eg. The bread is soft as a stone.

Dramatic Irony.

Eg. In “Oedipus the King” by Sophocles where Oedipus fails to realize what the audience knows- that he married his own mother.

Situational Irony.

Eg. In “Man of the people” by Chinua Achebe, One could not expect that Chief Nanga would take Elsie (who was Odili’s girlfriend) and sleep with her under Odili’s witness and worse still not being apologetic to what he has done.

Irregular rhyme scheme.

This occurs when rhyming words do not follow a specific pattern. i.e no specific rhyme pattern.

Italian sonnets.

Is the type of sonnet with two main parts ; an octave (eight{8} lines) followed by a sestet (six{6}lines. It is sometimes referred to as petrarchan sonnet named after the fourteenth- century Italian poet, Petrarch.

An octave rhymes abababab

A sestet/sextet rhymes cdcdee Hence Italian/petrarchan sonnets rhyme ababababcdcdee

Jokes.

A joke refers to a thing that is said to cause amusement or laughter.

E.g. A story with a funny ending.

Juxtaposition.

Is a literary technique in which two things are placed side by side so as to show their comparisons and differences.

Kind.

Is a criterion or category used in the classification of poems normally basing on the content of the poem and form to a little bit.

Kinesthetic imagery.

Is the imagery representing movement or tension.

Eg. Muscles and joints.

Legend.

Is a story that deals with heroic deeds of great men and women. A legend has more of historical truth or perhaps of the supernatural.

Legends are considered as facts. They are taken to be things that actually happened. E.g the Legend of “Ng’wanamalundi” in the sukumaland.

Light verse .

Light verse refers to poems that use an ordinary speaking voice and a relaxed manner to treat their subjects gaily, or playfully, or wittly or with good-natured satire. It is sometimes defined as the witty or amusing verse on a popular subject. Eg. “The War Song of Dinas Vawr” by Thomas Love Peacock.

Limerick poem.

A limerick poem is a funny or humorous poem consisting of five lines. The first ,second and fifth lines are longer than the third and fourth lines. It has the rhyming pattern of “aabba” . The longer “a” lines rhyme with each other and the shorter “b” lines rhyme with each other.

Eg. The Nickelodeon TV show spongebob squarepants featured a limerick poem that went.

There was an old man from Peru-a Who dreamt he was eating his shoe- a

He awoke in a fright-b

In the mid oof the night-b

And found it was perfectly true-a

Linking

Is the repetition in which the last expression of one statement becomes the first expression in the following statement.

Eg. In the poem Africa by David Mandessi Diop, it appears;

The blood of your sweat The sweat of your work The work of your slavery

The slavery of your children

Literary devices.

These are artistic language structures used by writers to give a deeper meaning and flavour to their literary works. Literary devices includes Figures of speech and Musical devices/Sound techniques.

Literature

is defined as the work of art which uses language creatively to portray social realities. Literature is sometimes stated as an artistic reflection of social realities expressed in words either written or spoken. Generally, it is the term used to designate fictional and imaginative writings like poetry, prose fiction and drama.

Litotes.

Is the use of a negative or weak statement to emphasize a positive meaning. Or a figure of speech that uses an understated statement of an affirmative by using a negative description.

Eg. “I’m not feeling bad” for “I’m feeling good”.

Lullabies.

These are songs sung to soothe children or babies.

Lyric poems.

These are song like poems expressing one’s personal feelings. Eg. “Song of a common lover” by Flaven Ranaivo.

Major characters.

These are characters who play an important role in a story. These are the drivers of the story in which the plot and resolution of conflicts resolve around them.

Melo-drama

This is a type of drama produced with musical accompaniment for entertainment. It is a drama with songs accompanying the actions.

Message.

Refers to lessons learned from the literary work. Each theme contains a lesson that a reader or audience learns.

Metaphor.

Is a direct comparison between two distinct things without using the words “like”, “as. as” or resemble.

Metaphor is having two parts which are Tenor and vehicle

Eg. Life is a dream. Juma is a lion. Time is money

Meter.

Is the recurrence, in regular units, of a prominent feature in the sequence of speech-sounds of a language.

Metaphorical language.

Is the language that deviates from ordinary language as it is full of literary devices such as figures of speech.

Metonymy.

Is the substitution of a word with another word that is close related to it.

Eg. My tongue is not difficult to learn : tongue = language. …You must address the chair first :chair = Leader of the session

Mime.

Refers the use of body movements and facial expressions by actors to convey a message without speaking. This may include the use of gestures or shaking hands.

Minor characters.

These are characters who do not play an important role in a story. These are the characters who take small part but they help the major characters to develop events.

Modern poems .

This refers to poems that do not strictly follow the poetic conventions or principles of meter and rhyme.

Eg. “BUILDING THE NATION” by

Henry Barlow.

Monologue.

Is an oral or written composition in which only one person speaks; or is any speech or narrative presented by one person.

Mood.

Mood is the feeling the reader gets through the prevailing tone. Mood is what the reader feels after reading a poem.ie The feelings of the reader after reading the poem. In the longrun, the reader can be happy, sad, angry sympathetic etc.

Motif.

Is something that is repeated several times in a literary work for artistic effect.

Motivation.

These are inner forces causing the characters to behave the way they do.

Myths.

These are untrue stories that talk about how different things originated. Myths deal with ideas or beliefs about the origin of different natural phenomena. Most of the

myths talk about why certain animals live the way they do, how death and diseases came to earth,etc. Generally, myths are about origins.

Narrative poem.

A narrative poem is a poem that tells a story.

Eg. “The shebeen Queen” by M. Pascal Gwala.

NB: Narrative poems are divided into; (a)Epics

(b)Ballads.

Narrator.

Is a person who tells a story.

Non chronological plot.

Is a plot in which events are not sequentially arranged. Events may start at end, middle and then finish with the beginning. Non chronological Plot gives a literary work its artistic quality as it keeps the audience eager and anxious about what is going to happen in the future.

Non realistic characters. These are characters who do not feature true human traits.

Novel.

is a kind of literary work which is written in prose from. An example of a novel is “HOUSEBOY” by Ferdinand Oyono or “THE CONCUBINE” by Elechi Amadi.

Novella.

Is a short prose fiction shorter than a novel but longer than a short story.

Novelette

Is a short novel that is often about romantic relationships and is usually not very serious. A novelette

is longer than a short story, but shorter than a novella. Any fictional work with a word count between 7,500 and 19,000 is generally considered a novelette.

Octave.

Is a stanza with eight lines.

Ode.

Is a serious expression of a single theme. It is sometimes referred to as a poem that addresses a person or a thing or celebrates an event. For instance a poem composed at one’s wedding may fall in this category.

Abrams defines it as “A long lyric poem that is serious in subject and treatment, elevated in style and elaborate in it’s stanzaic structure”. Eg. “I love you my gentle one” by Ralph Bitamazire.

Olfactory imagery.

Is the imagery representing smell.

Omniscient.

Is the method of narration in which the narrator appears to know everything about the characters.

Omniscient narrator.

Is a narrator of a story who appears to know everything about the characters. He seems to know even the thoughts of the mind of the character.

Onomatopoeia.

These are words which imitate the sounds of their objects. It is sometimes referredto as Echoism. Eg. tick-tock.

Open form poems.

This refers to poems that do not strictly follow the poetic conventions or principles of meter and rhyme. Eg. “BUILDING THE NATION” by Henry Barlow.

Opera.

Opera are plays set to music. The words are sung and sometimes presented in a dialogue that resembles conversation but sounds like singing. Opera is a plural name for Opus.

Opus.

An opus is a play set to music. A singular of opera.

Explanations and Definitions of Common Literary Terms

Definitions and Brief Explanations of Common Literary Terms LITERATURE IN ENGLISH FULL NOTES ORDINARY LEVEL (FORM 3 & 4) NECTA QUESTIONS on Literature in English (Form 3 & 4) NECTA QUESTIONS on English in Literature ORAL LITERATURE THEORIES OF LITERATURE STUDY QUESTIONS ON ENGLISH IN LITERATURE SELECTED POEMS FROM TANZANIA INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION (ANALYSIS) INTERPRETING LITERARY WORKS WRITTEN LITERATURE AFRICAN LITERATURE ELEMENTS OF LITERATURE INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE

Oral literature.

Is the type of literature which is expressed through oral expression. Folk tales, Legends, myths and Fables are examples of Oral literature.

Oral poetry.

Is the poetry composed and transmitted by singers or reciters. i.e transmitted orally.

Overstatement.

Is an evident exaggeration of the meaning for the sake of emphasis. Eg. I will fill all the rivers with my tears.

Thanks a million.

Oxymoron.

Is a phrase bringing together two contradictory terms.

Eg: “Open secret”. “wise fool”. “Pleasing pain” “loving hate”.

“true lie P.

Pantomime.

Is acting on the stage without speech, using only posture, gesture, bodily movement and exaggerated facial expression. It only character’s actions that express his or her feelings.

Parable.

Is a short story about religious or spiritual teachings to people using a serious tone.

Eg. A tale of a fairy tale.

Paradox.

Is a statement which seems on its face to be logically contradictory or absurd, yet turns out to be interpretable in a way that makes sense.

Eg. They have been burning us with a cold fire( i.e ruining us without our notice ).

Look at those walking corpses.

Parallelism

Is the repetition of line which have similar structure and have a similar phrase. Contrary to anaphora, parallelism is a phrase that consists of more than one word.

Eg. The structure “I’ll. ” in the last

stanza of the poem “The troubled warrior” by Alexander Muigai which runs;

I’ll venture to go home

I’ll take up my hoe and dig I’ll pick up my stick and herd I’ll court my girl and wed Having done my duty,

I’ll sit by the fire

Pathos.

Is the term applied to a scene or passage that is designed to evoke tenderness, pity, sympathy or sorrow from the audience.

Persona .

This is a person who speaks in a poem or the speaking voice in the poem. Any poem must have someone who says something.

Eg: Atieno’s uncle is the persona in the poem A Freedom Song” by Marjorie Oludhe Macgoye while The driver is the persona in the poem Building the Nation” by Henry Barlow.

Personification.

Is the giving of human attributes to animals or inanimate objects.

Eg. The cow cried bitterly.

The mountains rose majestically.

Petrarchan sonnet.

Is a type of sonnet which falls into two main parts ; an octave (eight{8} lines) followed by a sestet (six{6}lines. It is named after the fourteenth- century Italian poet, Petrarch. The other name for this kind of sonnet is Italian sonnet.

An octave rhymes abababab

A sestet/sextet rhymes cdcdee Hence Italian/petrarchan sonnets rhyme ababababcdcdee

Play.

is a literary genre written in dialogue form. The play is the work of art that is written for the purpose of being acted on the stage. When a play is acted on the stage it is called drama. The written script is called a play. The participants who take part in the play are called actors/actresses.

A good example of a play is “THE LION AND THE JEWEL” by Wole

Soyinka.

NB: There are about seven types of plays namely;

1. Tragedy

2. Comedy

3. Tragic-comedy

4. Historical drama

5. Melo-drama

6. Teleplay

7. Dumb play

Tragedy .

Is a type of drama which shows serious actions and always a protagonist endangers his/her life. It is a dramatic representation of serious actions which eventuate in a disastrous conclusion for the protagonist (the chief character).

He/she become faced by death or isolation.

E.g “Kinjeketile” by Ibrahim Hussein.

Comedy.

It is a type of drama which is funny or humorous because it always make the audience laugh.

E.g. “The Government Inspector” by Nikolai Gogol.

Tragic-comedy.

This is a kind of drama which combines the elements of both tragedy and comedy. In this type of drama/play a hero or heroine does not endanger his/her life. i.e does not end in death or danger.

Historical drama.

This is the type of drama which expresses the history of a certain society. Also in this type of drama, the reader will find the elements of tragedy and comedy.

E.g. “Dedan kimathi” by keneth Wetene.

Melo-drama

This is a type of drama produced with musical accompaniment for entertainment. It is a drama with songs accompanying the actions.

Teleplay

This is the play to be shown in televisions where acts and scenes may change quickly and dramatically

Dumb play.

This is the type of play in which only gestures are used to convey a message without speech. It is just a piece of action given in mimes and the actors don’t speak.

Play within a play.

This refers to the history of a play within a play narrated by an actor or a character. This literary device is known to have been first used by Thomas Kyd in “The Spanish Tragedy” in 1587.

Eg. “The dance of the lost traveller” in “The lion and the Jewel” by Wole Soyinka.

Plot.

Plot refers to the series of events in a literary work. It is also defined as the sequence of events in a literary work. Or is the arrangement of events/episodes in the literary work. NB:Types of Plot.

There are two types of plot namely;

1. Chronological Plot.

2. Non chronological plot.

Chronological plot.

This is a straight forward plot in which events move from the beginning to the end. This type of plot is of great advantage as it helps the readers to understand the literary work more easily.

Non chronological plot.

Is a plot in which events are not sequentially arranged. Events may start at end, middle and then finish with the beginning. Non chronological Plot makes it difficult for a reader to understand the literary work.

Parts of the plot.

Plot has the following parts.

1. Exposition.

2. Rising action.

3. Conflict/crisis.

4. Climax.

5. Falling action.

6. Resolution/Denouement.

Exposition.

This is the first part of the plot which introduces the setting, characters and the basic situations. Exposition acts as the foundation of the story in the literary work.

Rising action.

This is the part of the plot following the exposition. Rising action is the part where suspense grows among the characters as the complications of the conflict starts.

Conflict/crisis.

Refers to misunderstanding between two parts in literary work. It is also defined as the struggle between two opposing forces of a story. There are;

Group to group conflict.

Group to person conflict.

person to person conflict.

Personal/internal/intrapersonal conflict.

Climax.

This is the highest point in which the conflict reaches the its peak. It is the part which creates interest or suspense to the readers or audience. It is the moment of greatest danger or decision making for the Protagonist. In other words, climax is the most exciting moment in the story.
Falling action.

This is a part of plot which shows what happens to the characters after the Climax. Normally one side among the two conflicting parts loses power and hence tension decreases.
Resolution/Denouement.

This is the final part of the story. Resolution is the end of the story as conflicts are resolved and some mysteries are unraveled. This is the part of a plot in which the central conflict is resolved and the consequences for the Protagonist are already dissolved.

Poem.

Is a metrical composition characterized by strong imagination, significant meaning and appropriate language. Or Poem is a piece of writing in verses form especially expressing deep feelings in an artistic language.

NB: There are two criteria used to classify poems namely;

A. Form

B. Kind

A. Form

Classification of poems according to form normally base on the form of the poem. According to form poems are classified into two types;

1. Bound form/Bound verse/Traditional poems

2. Open form/Free verse/Modern poems

B. Kind

Classification of poems according to kind normally base on content of a poem and form to a little bit According to kind poems are classified into the following kinds;

1. Lyric poems

2. Narrative poems

3. Dramatic poems

4. Didactic poems

5. Descriptive poems

6. Limerick poems

7. Diamond poems

8. Haiku

FORM.

Bound form/Bound verse/Traditional poems. This refers to poems that strictly follow the poetic conventions or

principles especially of meter and rhyme.

Eg. “IF WE MUST DIE” by Claude Mc kay.

Open form/Free verse/Modern poems.

This refers to poems that do not strictly follow the poetic conventions or principles of meter and rhyme.

Eg. “BUILDING THE NATION” by Henry Barlow.

(1) Lyric poems.

These are song like poems expressing one’s personal feelings. Eg. “Song of a common lover” by Flaven Ranaivo.

NB: Types of lyric poems.

Lyric poems are divided into;

Ode

Song

Sonnet Elegy

Light verse

(a) Ode.

Abrams defines it as “A long lyric poem that is serious in subject and treatment, elevated in style and elaborate in it’s stanzaic structure”. Eg. “I love you my gentle one” by

Ralph Bitamazire.

(b)Song.

Is a poem set to music. Eg. “Song” by Jonathan Kariara.

(c) Sonnet.

Is a lyric poem that contain fourteen (14) lines.

Eg. “IF WE MUST DIE” by Claude Mc kay.

NB: There are two main types of sonnets;

English/ Shakespearean sonnet

Italian/petrarchan sonnet (i)English/Shakespearean sonnet. This is type sonnet that falls into three quatrains and a concluding couplet. It is named after its great practitioner, William Shakespeare. Eg.”LET ME NOT TO THE MARRIAGE OF TRUE MINDS” by William Shakespeare. In this poem

The 1st quatrain rhymes abab

The 2nd quatrain rhymes cdcd

The 3rd quatrain rhymes efef

The last couplet rhymes gg Hence English/Shakespearean sonnets rhyme ababcdcdefefgg (ii)Italian/Petrarchan sonnet.

Is a type of sonnet which falls into two main parts ; an octave (eight{8}

lines) followed by a sestet (six{6}lines. It is named after the fourteenth- century Italian poet, Petrarch. The other name for this kind of sonnet is Italian sonnet. In these kind of poems

An octave rhymes “abababab”

A sestet/sextet rhymes

“cdcdee”

Hence Italian/petrarchan sonnets rhyme “ababababcdcdee”

(d) Elegy .

Is a lyric poem that expresses sadness about someone who died. Or a lyric poem that commemorates someone who died.

Eg. “An Elegy” by Laban Erapu.

(e) Light verse .

Eg. “The War Song of Dinas Vawr” by Thomas Love Peacock. (2)Narrative poems.

Narrative poem are poems that tell a story.

Eg. “The shebeen Queen” by M. Pascal Gwala.

NB:Narrative poems are divided into;

(a) Epics

(b) Ballads.

Epics.

These are long dignified poems telling a story of heroic deeds. Epics sometimes refer to long poems that deal with actions of great men and women or history of nations

(b)Ballads.

These are narrative poems that tell a story. Eg. “Ballad of the Landlord” by Langston Hughes.

(3) Dramatic poems.

These are poems in which a person is talking to another person or to other persons.

NB: Types of dramatic poems Dramatic poems are divided into two types ; dramatic monologue (b)dramatic dialogue.

(a) Dramatic monologue.

Is a type of poem in which only one person is speaking addressing another person or other persons. Eg. “If we must die” by Claude Mckay

(b) Dramatic dialogue .

Is a type of poem in which two or more people are speaking to each other. Eg. “Dialogue” by Jared Angira.

Didactic poems.

These are poems designed to give instructions to readers. Didactic poems are mainly for political or social messages. Eg. “Your Pain” by Armando Guebuza.

Descriptive poems.

These are poems giving picture in words. In other words, a descriptive poem is stated as a poem that uses detailed words to create an image of a person, animal or inanimate object.

“Perfect woman” by William Wordsworth.

Limerick poems.

Limerick poems are funny or humorous poems consisting of five lines. The first ,second and fifth lines are longer than the third and fourth lines. It has the rhyming pattern of “aabba”. The longer “a” lines rhyme with each other and the shorter “b” lines rhyme with each other.

Eg. The Nickelodeon TV show spongebob squarepants featured a limerick poem that went.

“There was an old man from Peru-a Who dreamt he was eating his shoe- a

He awoke in a fright-b

In the mid oof the night-b

And found it was perfectly true-a”

Diamond poems.

These are poems about two opposite topics. Topic A is always opposite to topic B and they are written a diamond shape.

E.g, a poem whose topic A is birth while topic B is death.

Eg.

Birth Happy, active

Laughing,hoping,living Child,innocence,adult,problems Thinking,crying,suffering

Old, ill Death

Haiku.

Is a Japanese form of Poetry consisting of three unrhymed lines of five, seven and five syllables.

Eg.

An old silent pond

A frog jumps into the pond,

Splash? Silence again.

Poet

Is a male person who composes poems.

E.g Jwani Mwaikusa.

Poetess

Is a female person who composes poems.

E.g Marjorie Oludhe Macgoye.

Poetic lisense.

Is the privilege which artists are given to break the grammatical rules of language.

Eg. “These steps is broken down” instead of “These steps are broken down” (from “Ballad of the landlord” by Langston Hughes).

Poetry.

Poetry refers to the literary genre that is presented in verses and stanzas as well as musical features. Or Poetry is the type of literature in which the sound and meaning of language are combined to create ideas and feelings.

Point of view.

Point of view is an angle from which a literary work is narrated. OR Point of view refers to how a work of art is narrated. Most fictions in English literature employs first and second points of views in their narration.

NB: There are three points of view in literary works;

First person point of view

Second person point of view

Third person point of view.

First person point of view.

Second person point of view

Is a type of point of view or method of narration in which the pronoun “you” is employed in narrating the story. It is rarely used in works of literature.

Third person point of view.

Is the type of point of view in which the narrator is outside the story. This is a very common point of view. Eg. “Weep not child” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o.

Prologue.

Is a sort of introduction to a story that usually sets the tone for the story and acts as a bit of a background into the story.

Prologues are typically a narrative spoken by one of the characters and not from the part of the author

Eg. “The origin of the story is. “,

“It all began one day when. “.

Props.

Refers to material elements which are used on a stage by actors or actresses such as caps and sticks. Eg. Jero’s cap in “The trials of brother Jero” by Wole Soyinka.

Prose

Prose is an extended writing that is continuous written in paragraphs. Prose includes writings such as;

Novel
Novella
Novelette
Short story

Prosody.

Is the systematic study and consideration of the principles and practice of meter, rhyme and stanza forms. Sometimes it is extended to include also the study of speech- sound patterns and effects such as alliteration, assonance, euphony and onomatopoeia.

Protagonist.

Is a character with positive traits and the audience love him/her. This is a character playing a central role in a story.

Proverbs.

These are short well-known sayings that state a general truth or give an advice. E.g. Don’t put all your eggs in one basket.

Puns.

Is a play on words that are either identical in sound (homonyms) or very similar in sound, but are sharply diverse in meaning.

Quatrain.

Is a stanza with four lines.

Quintet.

Is a stanza with five lines.

Radio play.

This is a drama that is written specifically to be broadcast over the radio.

Real setting.

Is the setting of the literary work to a real place known to people. Real setting makes a literary work more realistic. Eg. “Kinjeketile” is set in southern Tanzania.

Realistic characters.

Refrain.

Is a line, part of line or group of lines which is repeated at the end of each stanza. Eg. “Atieno yo” is a refrain in “A freedom Song” by Marjorie Oludhe Macgoye.

Rehearsal.

Refers to a practice of a perfomance either a music, dance or a play before a real performance. A rehearsal can be done even without the audience or the actors and actresses may act as the audience. Rehearsal helps the performers to have confidence and to experience the stage before a real perfomance.

Relevance.

Is the relationship between what is in a literary work and what is happening in the society.

Repeated code-switching.

Is the type of code-switching in which the speaker switches to another language to repeat the same message he has spoken in the first language.

Eg. Nitakutembelea kesho, I will visit you tomorrow.

Repetition.

Is a repetition of the same word especially in a poem to create rhythm and for emphasis.

David Mandessi Diop. E.g The word “Africa” in the poem “Africa” by

NB: Types of repetition Repetition inclides the following types

Alliteration
Assonance
Consonance
Rhyme
Refrain
Anaphora
Parallelism

Alliteration.

Is the repetition of initial consonant sounds in a sequence of nearby words. Or the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginnings of nearby words. Eg. If Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers, how many pickled peppers did Peter Piper pick? i.e sound /p/

Delicate diplomatic duties you know i.e sound /d/ (From “Building the nation” by Henry Barlow)

Assonance.

Is the repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds in a sequence of nearby words. Eg. Bride of quietness though foster child silence i.e sound /ai/

Consonance.

Is the repetition of final consonant sounds in a sequence of nearby words. Eg. Take your pick and pack your pack i.e sound /k/.

Rhyme.

Is the repetition of the same sound at the end of lines of a poem.

Eg bear……….say. cry

Hear…………….pay. high

Refrain.

Is a line, part of line or group of lines which is repeated at the end of each stanza.

Eg. “Atieno yo” is a refrain in “A freedom Song” by Marjorie Oludhe Macgoye.

Anaphora.

This is the repetition of the word at the beginning of consecutive lines, verses or sentences.

Eg. The word Africa in the first three lines of the poem “Africa” by David Mandessi Diop which runs;

Africa my Africa

Africa of proud warriors in ancestral savannahs

Africa of whom my grandmother sings

Parrallelism

Is the repetition of line which have similar structure and have a similar phrase. Contrary to anaphora, parallelism is a phrase that consists of more than one word.

Eg. The structure “I’ll. ” in the last stanza of the poem “The troubled warrior” by Alexander Muigai which runs;

I’ll venture to go home

I’ll take up my hoe and dig I’ll pick up my stick and herd I’ll court my girl and wed Having done my duty,

I’ll sit by the fire

Resolution.

Riddle.

Is a puzzling question, statement or a description intended to test the cleverness of those wishing to solve them. African riddles involves two parts; namely the setter and the respondent. The setter is the one who poses a challenge while the respondent is the one who offers an answer. E.g. My house has no door = an egg.

Rising action.

This is the part of the plot following the exposition. Rising action is the part where suspense grows among the characters as the complications of the conflict starts.

Rhetorical question.

Is a statement in form of a question used for emotional emphasis. Eg. Didn’t I tell you? – I told you. Who knows? – No one knows.

Rhyme.

Is the repetition of the same sound at the end of lines of a poem.

Eg bear……………….say cry

Hear…………….pay. high

Rhythm.

Is a pattern of stressed and unstressed syllbles or words in a line of a poem. It is the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables. Round character.

Is a complex and fully realized individual. OR is a character who has complex personality.

Sarcasm.

Is a bitter cutting speech intended to wound someone’s feelings. It is intended by a speaker to give pain to the person addressed.

Eg. Student: I don’t understand :Teacher: Well I wouldn’t expect you too.

Satire.

Is a ridicule of human folly with the purpose of bringing about a reform or at least of keeping other people from falling into similar folly. It is used to criticize human folly especially by making it appear ridiculous or laughable.

Scene.

Is a subdivision of an act of a play in which the time is continuous and the setting is fixed. Shortly a scene is one of the parts into which a play or a film may be divided.

Script

This is a written text of a play, film/movie, that guides the actors how to act the drama.

Second person point of view.

Is a type of point of view or method of narration in which the pronoun “you” is employed in narrating the story. It is rarely used in works of literature.

Semiotics(semiology).

Is the systematic study of signs as they function in all areas of human experience.

Seplet.

Is a stanza with seven lines.

Sequential code-switching.

Is a type of code switching in which the speaker switches to another language and continue the message. Eg. Nitakutembelea kesho though I won’t say the exact time.

Sestet(Sextet).

Is a stanza with six lines.

Setting.

Refers to the time and place where and when events take place in a work of literature. Basically setting is the locale, historical time and social circumstances in which the actions of the work of literature occur. Sometimes defined as a place and time where events of the work of art take place.

Eg “In Tanzania after independence” where as “Tanzania” is a place and “after independence” is time.

NB: Types of setting.

There are about three types of setting.

Geographical setting.

Temporal setting.

Sociological setting.

Geographical setting.

This is the place setting.

Eg. In Tanzania, Nigeria, Kenya.

Temporal setting. This is the time setting. Eg. After independence.

Sociological setting.

This is a situational or environmental setting.

Eg. Exploitative environment. Categories of Geographical setting

Geographical setting also can be categorized into ;

Real setting.

Imaginary setting.

Real setting.

Is the setting of the literary work to a real place known to people. Real setting makes a literary work more realistic. Eg. “Kinjeketile” is set in southern Tanzania.

Shakespearean sonnet.

This is type sonnet that falls into three quatrains and a concluding couplet. It is named after its great practitioner, William Shakespeare. The 1st quatrain rhymes “abab”

The 2nd quatrain rhymes “cdcd”

The 3rd quatrain rhymes “efef” The last couplet rhymes “gg” Hence English/Shakespearean sonnets rhyme “ababcdcdefefgg”. Eg.”LET ME NOT TO THE

MARRIAGE OF TRUE MINDS” by William Shakespeare.

Simile.

Is the comparison between two distinct things using words “like”, “as. as” or “resemble”

Eg. She is beautiful like flowers.

As black as a charcoal.

Situational Irony.

This is an event that occur directly contrary to the expectations of characters, the readers or the audience. Situational irony is when things turn out to be contrary to the expectations of the characters, readers or audience. Eg. In “Man of the people” by Chinua Achebe, One could not expect that Chief Nanga would take Elsie (who was Odili’s girlfriend) and sleep with her under Odili’s witness and worse still not being apologetic to what he has done.

Short Story.

Is a narrative writing which is brief and simple than a novel. A short story is sometimes defined as a story with only one fully developed theme but significantly shorter and less elaborative than a novel. A short story usually has a word range of between 1,000 and 7,500 words.

E.g. “Mabala the Farmer” by Richard

S. Mabala. Sociological setting. This is a situational or environmental setting.

Eg. Exploitative environment.

Soliloquy.

Is the act of talking to oneself, whether silently or aloud. In other words, A soliloquy is a speech in which a character who is alone, speaks to his or her thoughts silently or aloud.

Song.

Is a poem set to music.

Eg. “Song” by Jonathan Kariara.

Sonnet.

Is a lyric poem that contain fourteen (14) lines.

Eg. “IF WE MUST DIE” by Claude Mc kay.

NB: There are two main types of sonnets;

English/ Shakespearean sonnet

Italian/Petrarchan sonnet

(a) English/Shakespearean sonnet

This is type sonnet that falls into three quatrains and a concluding couplet. It is named after its great practitioner, William Shakespeare. Eg.”LET ME NOT TO THE MARRIAGE OF TRUE MINDS” by William Shakespeare. In this poem

The 1st quatrain rhymes

“abab”

The 2nd quatrain rhymes

“cdcd”

The 3rd quatrain rhymes “efef”

The last couplet rhymes “gg” Hence English/Shakespearean sonnets rhyme “ababcdcdefefgg”

(b)Italian/Petrarchan sonnet.

An octave rhymes “abababab”

A sestet/sextet rhymes

“cdcdee”

Hence Italian/petrarchan sonnets rhyme “ababababcdcdee”

Spenserian sonnet.

Is the sonnet poem with the interlocked rhyme scheme of “ababbcbccdcdee”.

Stage.

Is a performing area or a place where performance takes place. A stage can be a hall or an open area. Even the ground or stadium. It depends on the arrangement of the director. The important thing about the stage is that the performer is seen by the audience.

Stage directions.

These are words that are incorporated in a play with the intention of making readers imagine they are viewing the actual performance on stage. They show setting of an act or a scene. They Also show whether actors are happy, angry, sad or surprised they also
show leaving and entering of characters on the stage. Stage directions make a reader see the play in his/her mind. They are written in italics.

Stanza.

Is a group of arranged verses in a poem making up a complete idea. NB: Types of stanzas.

There are about seven types of stanzas

Couplet
Triplet/Tercet
(C) Quatrain
Quintet
Sestet/sextet
Seplet
Octave

Couplet is a stanza with two lines

Triplet/Tercet is a stanza with three lines

Quatrain is a stanza with four lines

Quintet is a stanza with five lines

Sestet/sextet is a stanza with six lines

Seplet is a stanza with seven lines

Octave is a stanza with eight lines

Static characters

Stock characters.

Are character types that occur repeatedly in a particular literary genre, and so are recognizable as

part of the conventions of the form. In other words stock characters are the characters borrowed from other literary works recognized by readers. Eg. Gullet in The Oldman and the Medal is the character borrowed from Houseboy

Suspence.

Is a lack of certainty on the part of a concerned reader/audience about what is going to happen to character with whom the reader has established a bond of sympathy.

Symbol.

In the broadest sense, a symbol is anything which signifies something, in this sense, all words are symbols. In literature however, it is applied only to a word or phrase that signifies an object or event which in its turn signifies something or suggests a range of reference beyond itself.

Symbolic character.

A Symbolic character is the one whose presence in the work of literature stands for or represents an idea (political, social, economic etc such as corruption, dictatorship, greed. ) in a society.

Symbolism.

Is the use of something to represent something else. Eg. “Angel” to represent “purity” .

Sympathy.

Refers to a feeling of pity or sorrow for somebody.

Synecdoche.

Is a figure of speech in which part of something is used to designate the whole or the whole to designate the part. Eg. I have many months to feed:

Mouths = people.

Tanzania won a gold medal in marathon :Tanzania = Only a person who participated.

Tactile imagery.

Is the imagery representing touch.

Target audience.

These are listeners or readers who are suitable for a given literary work.

Eg. An AIDS work of art is suitable for young people who are sexually active.

Tautology.

Is a phrase or expression in which the same thing is said twice in different words. Tautology is a needless repetition of an idea, especially in words other than those of the immediate context without imparting additional force or clearness.

Temporal setting. This is the time setting. Eg. After independence.

Tenor

is the subject of the metaphor to which attributes are ascribed.

Eg. Juma is a lion.

Tercet.

Is a stanza with three lines.

Theatre.

Themes.

Theme is a central or dominant

idea or purpose in a literary work. It is usually stated in a statement form.

Eg. Povetry, betrayal, Oppression, Irresponsibility etc.

Third person point of view.

Is the type of point of view in which the narrator is outside the story.

This is a very common point of view. Eg. “Weep not child” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o.

Title.

Refers the names given to literary works. Every literary work either a prose, play or poetry is given a name that reflects what is being said.

Always title is the synopsis/summary of what is presented in a literary work. It carries the subject matter of the work of art.

NB: Types of Title.

There are about two types of title namely;

Direct title.
Indirect/symbolic title.

(a) Direct title.

This is the type of title which is direct to the content of the literary work. It has a direct relationship to the content of the literary work.

Eg. “Three suitors one husband” by Guillaume Oyono mbia.

Indirect/symbolic title.

Is the type of title which has no relationship with the content of the literary work. Indirect title is normally used to disguise the message so that it can reach the masses without being prevented by authorities. Eg. “I will marry when I want” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o.

Importance of using an Indirect/Symbolic Title.

It gives the work of art an artistic quality.
It is used to disguise/cover up the message so that it could not be easily prevented from reaching the audience without being banned by the concerned authorities.

Tone.

Tone is the attitude of the poet or persona towards the subject matter being addressed in a poem. It can express love, hatred, pity, sarcasm, sad, angry etc.

Traditional poems.

This refers to poems that strictly follow the poetic conventions or principles especially of meter and rhyme. They are also known as Bound form or Bound verse poems Eg. “IF WE MUST DIE” by Claude Mc kay.

Tragedy .

He/she become faced by death or isolation.
E.g “Kinjeketile” by Ibrahim Hussein.

Tragic-comedy.

This is a kind of drama which combines the elements of both tragedy and comedy. In this type of drama/play a hero or heroine does not endanger his/her life. i.e does not end in death or danger.

Triplet.

Is a stanza with three lines

Understatement.

Is a figure of speech which expresses a fact too weakly or less emphatically than the way it is.

Eg.I didn’t beat him much, only 100 strikes. I have only a small farm, only 500 acres.

Vehicle

is the object of the metaphor whose attributes are borrowed.

Eg. Juma is a lion.

Verbal Irony.

Is the type of irony in which what is spoken or said is opposite from what is meant. i.e words are used to suggest the opposite of their usual meaning

Eg. The bread is soft as a stone.

Verse .

Is a single line in a poem.

Visual imagery.

Is the imagery representing seen objects.

Vulgarism.

Is the use of a rude word or expression especially one relating to sex.

Wit

Is a literary device that makes audience laugh. The terms Wit, Humor and Comic are interrelated as they all mean any element in a work of literature whether a character, event or utterance which is designed to amuse or to excite mirth in the reader or audience. Written literature.

This is the type of literature which is expressed in written form. This category of literature began with the invention of writing.

NB: Genres of Written Literature There are three main genres of Written Literature;

(a) Prose(novels)

(b) plays(drama)