Topic 1: Crafting meaning – Academic Communication Notes Form Five
Crafting meaning involves the process of forming, using and interpreting words in order to understand the meaning they are conveying. In this chapter you will learn how to form words, how to pronounce words correctly, the importance of stress and intonation in oral communication and how to interpret literal meanings of words and sentences in various contexts.
The competences developed in this chapter will enable you to use different processes to form new words, pronounce words correctly and interpret literal meaning of English words effectively to meet various communicative needs. You will also be able to add vocabulary and express ideas both orally and in writing.
Word formation
Word formation is referred to as the process of creating new words. It involves simple and complex processes. New words are always created to address communicative needs.
Sometimes, a new concept may be brought about by technology, or there may be a situation where a word for a new concept or item may not exist in a given language. Certain ideas could be lengthy and require time to express.
Thus, human beings can simplify them by creating acronyms. A new understanding, or a more focused understanding of a concept, can also be formed by certain words.
Mastering word formation is crucial in academic communication because it facilitates vocabulary expansion, expression of ideas in writing and oral communication contexts and easy understanding. People with word formation skills can easily infer the meanings of texts. There are several types of word formation processes.
Activity 1.1
Use online/offline sources to read about affixation, compounding, blending, clipping, coining, acronym and borrowing types of word formation processes. Then, write short notes about each type.
Types of word formation processes
Affixation
Affixation is a morphological process in which affixes are added to a word to form a new word or change the meaning of the existing one.
There are two major types of affixes:
- prefixes and
- suffixes
Prefixes are affixes attached to the beginning of a word, such as re- in “rewrite”, neo- in “neonatal” or anti- in “anticorruption,” multi- in “multimedia”.
Suffixes are attached to the end of a word, such as -ing in “walking” or -ly in “mechanically”.
Affixation can be applied to:
1. Create new words (derivation), such as kindness from kind.
2. Change the meaning of an existing term, such as rewrite from write.
3. Change a word’s category (part of speech); for example, kind from adjective to noun kindness.
The activity you completed has given you new words through affixation. Some new words have been formed by adding prefixes to the beginning of a word to change them into other word categories. Some new words have been formed by adding suffixes to the end of a word to change them to other words. Some words have taken affixes at the end and in that way get assigned a particular grammatical property such as a tense, number, possession or comparison. Some suffixes have specific grammatical functions of a new word, such as comparison, number, tense, or possession but do not change the word class and some prefixes and suffixes change both the meaning and word class of a word.
Exercise 1.2
Study the words you have formed in exercise 1.1 and categories them as;
1. Words changed to other word categories by prefix.
2. Words assigned a particular grammatical property e.g., number, possession, tense and comparison.
Compounding
Compounding is a process of combining two or more words to create a word with different meaning.
There are three types of compounds namely
- open compound
- closed compound and
- hyphenated compound.
With open compounds two distinct words combined but with space between them. For example, words data and base are combined to form the word data base.
Closed compounds is a result of combining two distinct words and writing them as one (i.e., without space between them). For example, words fire and fighter form the term firefighter.
With hyphenated compounds, two distinct words are written by connecting them with hyphens. For example words type and writer are written as type- writer. Compound words can acquire new meaning, which are distinct from their original meaning.
Compounding has become a common word formation technique which can significantly increase the size of a lexicon. As technology and society develop, many new vocabulary items emerge in the language to accommodate the inventions and changes.
Exercise 1.3
Complete the table below by forming new words under each given type of compound.
Then, construct a sentence for each word you have formed.
| Type of compound | Words |
| Open compounds | |
| Closed compounds | |
| Hyphenated compounds |
Activity 1.2
Use online/offline sources to identify vocabulary items that have been developed due to the development of technology and society. Then, construct a sentence for each word formed.
Conversion
Conversion involves creating new words by giving an existing word a new meaning and word class without altering its structure. Thus, the word’s base does not usually change in this instance. Through meanings, newly created words are functionally distinguished from one another. Examples of word formation through conversion are:
1. I head a meeting every week. (the word head is a verb)
Juma has a big head. (the word head is a noun)
I will email you tomorrow. (the word email is verb)
I will send you an email tomorrow. (the word email is a noun)
The elegant dress was made of the finest Italian silk. (the word silk is a noun)
She wore a silk dress. (the word silk is an adjective)
Exercise 1.4
Use the following words to form new words or create new meaning in sentences and indicate a class for cach word.
table – clean – shape-walk – mountain – bottle – design
Activity 1.3
Prepare a dialogue using words created through conversion.
Blending
Blending is a process of creating new words by combining parts of two existing words.
Usually, the meanings of the new words are combinations of the existing ones. Unlike compounding, which preserves the original words within the new words, blending removes some parts of the joined words. Consider the following examples:
1. The word brunch is a blend of the words breakfast and lunch.
2. The word smog is a blend of the words smoke and fog.
3. The word netiquette is formed from internet and etiquette.
Blended words are typically associated with technology advancements, which have introduced many new items and ideas into our daily existence. Through blending, computers and the internet have significantly impacted the formation of new English words. The words and the activities have been combined to create many new words.
Exercise 1.5
Complete the following table by blending the given pairs of words to form new words.
Activity 1.4
Search online/offline sources for blended words and use them in a conversation.
Clipping/ Truncation
Clipping is another way to form words. It involves shortening or deleting some parts of a word; hence, the remaining part of such a word becomes a new word. However, the newly formed word retains the same meaning.
Clipping can be:
- back clipping involving shortening or deleting a part of the original word at the back (examination – exam) fore-clipping involving shortening or deleting a part of the original word at the front aeroplane – plane),
- middle clipping involving shortening or deleting a part of the original word in the middle (junior – jr) and
- clipping both the back and fore parts of a word which involves deleting both parts of a word at the beginning and the end (refrigerator – fridge)
Exercise 1.6
Complete the following table by forming new words through clipping method.
| Type of Clipping | Words clipped | New words formed |
| Internet | ||
| Middle clipping | Cannot | |
| Mister | ||
| Doctor | ||
| Clipped both | Influenza | |
| Refrigerator | ||
| Prescription |
| Back clipping | Memorandum | |
| Gymnasium | ||
| Gasoline | ||
| Fore-clipping | Telephone | |
| Cockroach |
2. Construct sentences using the new words you have formed through clipping method.
Coining
Coining, also coinage, is the process of creating either deliberately or unintentionally new words or phrases to name newly invented products. Unlike other processes of word formation, this method does not rely on existing linguistic elements.
Instead, it often involves combining sounds or morphemes in a novel way to express a new concept or idea. This process can take place due to various reasons such as necessity, innovation, creativity and influence of other languages or culture.
Some coined words include desktop or desktop computer, smartphone, google, download, upload, lift, ventilator machine and COVID-19.
Exercise 1.7
Invent new words using coining process based on the following concepts or ideas (technology, environment, social media).
OR
Activity 1.5
Use the words you have formed in Exercise 1.7 in an essay or story.
Acronyms/Abbreviation
This is the process whereby the initial letters of one or more words are combined to form a new word. Often, the first letters of words are written in capital letters. Understanding the meaning of these initials is crucial to convey the intended idea in academic communication properly. Consider the following examples:
| New words | Abbreviated words |
| AIDS | Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome |
| DNA | Deoxyribonucleic acid |
| MRI | Magnetic Resonance Imaging |
| NATO | North Atlantic Treaty Organization |
| STEM | Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics |
Acronyms are often used for brevity and convenience purposes in a situation where long forms or names are common. In this case, concepts are referred to more easily.
Exercise 1.8
Create acronyms for any concepts or phrases of your choice used in any subject you are studying.
Borrowing
Borrowing is a process of adopting words from another language. Borrowed words are also known as loanwords. English has borrowed words from languages such as Latin, French, German and Kiswahili. Table 3.3 shows some borrowed words in English.
Table 1.1: English words borrowed from other languages
| French | Latin | German | Spanish | Kiswahili |
| Bon voyage | Kitchen | Hamster | Chocolate | Safari |
| Laissez faire | Education | Sparerib | Guerrilla | Mzee |
| Cliché | Data | Nickel | Alligator | Ugali |
| Décor | Chalk | Cobalt | Vanilla | Matatu |
| Fiancée | Butter | Quartz | Cockroach | Bodaboda |
| Par avion | Library | Kindergarten | Macho | Mwalimu |
| Dossier | Longitude | Noodle | Ranch |
Activity 1.6
Use online/offline sources to search other word formation processes (neologism, symbolism, reduplication and onomatopoeia). Then, write short notes for each process.
Exercise 1.9
How do online communication platforms and social media contribute to clipped words and dissemination of new words in English?
Pronouncing English words
Pronunciation refers to how words are articulated in a language. It covers elements such as rhythm, emphasis, intonation and the specific sounds of each word. Pronunciation plays a key role in language learning and clear communication.
It conveys vital information in speech and is closely linked to word interpretation. Experts in pronunciation can easily grasp the speech of native speakers. It first describes the syllable and then the place in a word where stress is applied. Determining stress patterns in words requires an understanding of the syllable. In English, stress is placed on particular syllables within words.
Exercise 1.10
1 Why is it necessary to learn correct English pronuncio
2. How do English vowels differ from Kiswahili vowels?
Application of English syllables
In language, sounds are not used in isolation. Rather, individual sounds are combined to form larger units, which are syllables. A syllable is made of either a vowel alone or a vowel combined with one consonant or more.
It is pronounced as a single unit in a particular word. In short, the number of vowels in a word determines the number of syllables. For example, the word tall contains one syllable as it has a single pronunciation unit with a single vowel sound.
However, consonants, also known as vocalic consonants, can form syllables on their own. These consonants are m, n and / in English words like rhythm, button and bottle, i.e., rhy-thm, but-ton and bot-tle, respectively.
Knowledge about how to divide words into syllables can help a language user chunk bigger words into more manageable pieces for easy pronunciation. Dividing a word
into syllables also helps the learner to figure out what the vowel sound will be.
When a language learner comes across unfamiliar words, breaking them up into syllables can help to predict the vowel sound based on the patterns they see in the word. Diving English words into their syllables follows certain procedures and the syllables form certain structural patterns.
Activity 1.7
Listen to a recorded oral presentation or English news bulletin and write down at least ten English words. Then, divide each word into their respective syllables.
Stress in pronunciation
When a word has more than one syllable, the syllables are not pronounced with the same energy. There will always be one syllable that stands out from others. That syllable is normally longer and louder than the other syllables in the word and it is said to carry stress. In English words, stress is not fixed on a particular syllable. Every word has a stressed syllable.
Stress is an essential feature of spoken English. Clear and accurate pronunciation of all English words relies on correct articulation and placement of stress. For example, stress is on the second syllable of the word banana. In this case, the first na’ is pronounced with more energy than the other syllables in the word. Stress is marked
using the symbol (‘).
This symbol is referred to as the stress mark. Therefore, the stressed syllable in ‘banana’ is marked as ‘ba’nana’. Stressed languages are languages spoken with differing degrees of emphasis on the words and syllables in the sentences. In English, there are cases when the word class determines the stress pattern. For example, if a noun
and a verb are similarly spelt, the noun receives stress on the first syllable while the verb receives stress on the second syllable.
Although stress and intonation are important parts of English pronunciation, learners must remember that it would be impossible for anyone to speak naturally with a set of rules in mind. The best way to improve one’s pronunciation is through constant contact with native speakers of English, either through conversation, watching films and news channels, or listening to the radio.
Classification of stress
There are two main types of stress when it comes to pronunciation: primary stress and secondary stress.
(a) Primary stress
Stress is important in pronunciation because it emphasises a particular syllable in a word or sentence. This emphasis involves making the syllable longer, louder
and higher in pitch compared to the others in the word. Stress plays a vital role in communication, helping to differentiate between words and convey their intended
meaning effectively. Examples of primary stress in words are as follows:
Examples of primary stress in words:
1. Example: In the word “example,” the primary stress is on the second syllable,
Ig’za:mpal/, making it longer, louder and higher in pitch compared to the other syllables.
2. Dog: The word “dog”/ ‘dog/ has only one syllable, which has the primary stress, making it louder and higher in pitch.
Apple: In “apple,”/’apal/ the first syllable, “A,” has the primary stress, making it louder and higher in pitch than the second syllable.
4. Organization: The word “organization”/,5:gnar’zerfan/ has primary stress on the fourth syllable, “zer”, making it longer, louder and higher in pitch than the
other syllables.
Examples of primary stress in sentences:
1. I told you so! In this common saying, the primary stress is on the word “so,” emphasising the point being made.
2. What are you doing? Here, the primary stress is on “you,” making it the focal point of the question.
Understanding and applying the primary stress in words correctly is crucial for clear and effective communication in English.
(b) Secondary stress
When describing secondary stress in pronunciation, we are looking at a lighter version of stress than primary stress. It is found on the second syllable of a word,
making it stand out a bit but not as strong as the primary stress. In English, this type of stress is used to highlight specific syllables in a word, making the pronunciation sound more precise and easier to understand.
Activity 1.8
Use online/offline dictionaries to identify the primary and secondary stresses on the following words:
1. Nouns: humanity, collocation, establishment, invitation, administration
2. Verbs: propagate, jeopardise, justify, disconnect, revamp
Intonation
Intonation refers to the rise and fall of the voice (tone) during speech, which is closely linked to stress and the expression of mood or emotion. It is a crucial aspect of language that, along with stress, helps convey the meaning or feeling behind the words spoken.
Intonation can indicate surprise, anger, interest, boredom, gratitude and more, making it a key component of the “music of the language.” There are three main patterns of intonation in English. The rising intonation (‘) toward the end of a sentence, for example, “Have you seen Mapalala anywhere?” This intonation suggests that the speaker is asking the listener for clarification or information. The falling intonation () on the final stressed syllable of a phrase or group of words. For example, “Do your responsibility, please”.
It usually denotes the conclusion of a sentence, the end of a thought, or a question for which the speaker is waiting for an answer. It can be identified by the voice’s pitch falling off as the sentence ends. This pattern suggests finality or certainty in the statement being made.
Furthermore, there are issues to note with regard to the rising and falling intonations.
1. Phrases with regular word order become questions when a rising intonation is applied; e.g., (regular) She is the first female president, (rising intonation) She is the first
female president?
2. Questions that begin with interrogative pronouns have a rising or falling intonation but often have a falling intonation. When such questions have a rising intonation, they imply surprise or heightened interest in the response. See the following examples:
How was your day? (with a rising intonation)
Oh, it was actually really good!
Better than I expected, surprisingly!
How was your day? (with a falling tone). It usually suggests an inquiry without any particular emphasis.
Not bad, got a lot done.
It was okay, just another day.
3. Questions with inverse word order have both rising and falling intonations. These are questions where an auxiliary or helping verb is placed before the subject. They are
also called questions without interrogative pronouns, e.g., Are you going with me?
4. Fall-Rise Intonation (M): The voice falls and then rises. This intonation is typically used at the end of statements when the speaker is unsure about something or may
have more to add. The fall-rise tone shows dependence and continuity. This tone conveys the feeling of reservation when a speaker has reserved something to add to
his words. This pattern is also used in polite requests or suggestions. For example:
. So, you’d be willing to confirm that ?… Well … I suppose so.
. Sure?
· He has arrived?
Exercise 1.11
Read the following sentences with appropriate intonation.
(a) She aspires to become a big farmer.
(b) We should be conscious of time.
(c) It’s 8 a.m.
(d) It’s 8 a.m .?
How was your day?
Oh, it was actually really good!
So, you’d be willing to confirm that? … Well … I suppose so.
He has arrived?
Don’t tell me that.
Activity 1.9
Prepare a speech about any of the cross-cutting issues you are familiar with and read it before an audience. Focus on the correct placing of stress and appropriate
use of intonation.
Sentence stress and intonation
1. Sentence stress is often linked to the way our voices rise and fall (intonation) while speaking. The natural rise and fall in pitch usually determine stressed and unstressed
words.
2. In English, there are two basic types of intonation: rising intonation and falling intonation. Falling intonation is far more common and often uses stressed verbs
and objects. Rising intonation is less common but can be used to express a negative emotion or ask a Yes/No question.
Understanding and using stress in words and sentences effectively can help convey meaning more accurately and naturally in English.
Activity 1.10
1. Put stress on words in oral sentences. Use the following words and add more words from different specialisations.
wave art heat break ion paint mass come light charge
2. Search different words with the following affixes and practise pronouncing them in oral sentences.
de- pre- un- -tion -sion -ic -ical -ity -ety -graphy -ic -ity ical
-graphy -ient -ual
Common pronunciation challenges in English
There are several reasons why pronouncing English words accurately can be tricky. One issue is that English has more vowel sounds than letters in the alphabet. This means that one letter can make multiple sounds, and one sound can be represented by different letters.
The varying vowel sounds in English can be particularly challenging to produce because the positions of the speech organs are constantly changing, making it hard to maintain a steady position.
Additionally, the different qualities of vowel sounds can make them hard to differentiate. For instance, the long /i/ sound in “seat” and the short /1/ sound in “sit” differ in tongue height and advancement but sound very similar acoustically. Similarly, diphthongs or vowel glides pose another difficulty in pronunciation.
(a) Vowel sounds
English has approximately 20 unique vowel sounds, far more than the five vowels in Kiswahili. Interestingly, these vowels can be pronounced in various ways, and
multiple-letter combinations can represent the same sound.
This implies that individuals learning to speak English fluently must master the accurate pronunciation of each vowel sound and distinguish between different combinations of vowels.
(b) Consonant sounds
Some consonant sounds in English differ from those in other languages. For instance, in languages like Hindi and Spanish, the letter “v” is pronounced like a [b] and the
letter “w” is pronounced as an [oo].
Effective pronunciation practice techniques include repeating and recording speech, participating in drills, listening to and imitating
audio resources, and engaging in role-playing exercises.
Literal meaning
Literal meanings of sentences are determined by interpreting words and phrases in their dictionary meanings; i.e., without considering their implied meanings. It entails
determining a word’s denotative meaning and comprehending how it works within the specified sentence structure.
This method concentrates only on the surface meaning of language. Examining the literal meaning of words can help one understand language more deeply and communicate more effectively.
Exercise 1.12
Construct a sentence for each of the following terms in various contexts without looking up their literal meaning.
firewall vision dividend agreement assignment equity chip terminate treat
We can prevent misunderstandings and misinterpretations in written and spoken communication by carefully reviewing definitions of a word. It is important to take the
context of a word or sentence into account when analysing its literal meaning. Tone, body language and cultural contexts are a few examples of factors that can greatly affect how a sentence is understood. Furthermore, accurate interpretation depends on understanding linguistic factors like idiomatic expressions and figurative language.
The literal meanings of sentences are analyzed differently than the figurative meanings of sentences whose analysis do not depend on the meanings of the words forming the sentences.
Individuals who are skillful in understanding the precise meaning of words, phrases and sentences can work confidently in various professions, including law, medicine, religion and language specialists. In examining the literal meaning of a word or sentence the following issues should be taken into account: semantic analysis, syntactic analysis, verb forms, figurative language and etymological recognition.
Exercise 1.13
Complete the following table by providing the sentences’ literal meanings.
| No. | Sentence | Literal meaning |
| 1 | My sister, Maria-Anna, owns a big | |
| company. | ||
| 2 | I managed to fix my expensive | |
| computer. | ||
| 3 | We didn’t realise he was a guinea pig. | |
| 4 | We were guinea pigs to test the effect of | |
| fortified rice. | ||
| 5 | He has a case. | |
| 6 | I read books. |
Activity 1.11
Listen to different recorded conversations. Then, identify keywords and interpret their literal meanings.
Revision questions
1. Explain the process of word formation and give examples.
2. Discuss the role of prefixes and suffixes in word formation.
3. Discuss factors that influence pronunciation of English words in your community.
4. Reflect on your pronunciation of English words before and after studying the role of stress and intonation in pronouncing English words.
5. Explain what denotation and connotation mean and provide examples of words with both positive and negative connotations.
6. Discuss how context and culture determine meaning of ambiguous words or phrases.
7. How has the knowledge about formation, pronunciation and literal meaning of words and sentences impacted the way you communicate in English?
