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Basic Mathematics Form One New Syllabus Exams 2025 Midterm, Terminal, Annual and Monthly Exams

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Basic Mathematics Form One New Syllabus Exams 2025 Midterm, Terminal, Annual and Monthly Exams

Basic Mathematics Form One Examination (New Syllabus) is a test based on the updated Basic Mathematics syllabus for Form One students in Tanzania. It usually assesses the topics taught during the year (or term) and is set to measure students’ grasp of Basic Mathematics concepts, skills, and applications.

Basic Mathematics Form One Examination (New Syllabus) is designed to assess Form One students on the new NECTA curriculum. It checks their understanding of fundamental math concepts, problem-solving skills, and ability to apply mathematics in real-life situations.

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LUQMAN MATHEMATICS FORM ONE MONTHLY TEST

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English Language Form One New Syllabus Exams 2025 Midterm, Terminal, Annual and Monthly Exams

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English Language Form One New Syllabus Exams 2025 Midterm, Terminal, Annual and Monthly Exams

English Language Form One Examination (New Syllabus) is a test based on the updated NECTA English syllabus for Form One students in Tanzania. It usually assesses the topics taught during the year (or term) and is set to measure students’ grasp of basic English Language concepts, skills, and applications.

Purpose of English Language Form One New Syllabus Exams 2025

To measure students’ knowledge of basic business concepts taught in Form One.
To evaluate skills in commerce, entrepreneurship, and bookkeeping basics.
To prepare students for higher levels of Business Studies in Forms Two to Four.

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Physics Form One New Syllabus Examinations 2025 Midterm, Terminal, Annual and Monthly Exams

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Physics Form One New Syllabus Examinations 2025 Midterm, Terminal, Annual and Monthly Exams

A Physics Form One Examination (New Syllabus) is a test based on the updated NECTA Physics syllabus for Form One students in Tanzania. It usually assesses the topics taught during the year (or term) and is set to measure students’ grasp of basic physics concepts, skills, and applications.

Purpose of Physics Form One New Syllabus Examinations 2025

To measure students’ knowledge of basic business concepts taught in Form One.
To evaluate skills in commerce, entrepreneurship, and bookkeeping basics.
To prepare students for higher levels of Business Studies in Forms Two to Four.

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LUQMAN PHYSICS FORM ONE MONTHLY TEST

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Business Studies Form One Examinations 2025 Midterm, Terminal, Annual and Monthly Exams

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Business Studies Form One Examinations 2025 Midterm, Terminal, Annual and Monthly Exams

Download Business Studies Form One Examinations 2025 Midterm, Terminal, Annual and Monthly Exams. The Business Studies Form One Examination is a test given to students in Form One (secondary school, first year) to assess their understanding of the subject after a term, midterm, or end of the year.

Purpose of Business Studies Form One Examinations 2025

To measure students’ knowledge of basic business concepts taught in Form One.
To evaluate skills in commerce, entrepreneurship, and bookkeeping basics.
To prepare students for higher levels of Business Studies in Forms Two to Four.

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Zonal Standard Two Assessment Examination 2025, APEO MOCK EXAMS STANDARD TWO 2025, MBEYA STANDARD TWO (DARASA LA PILI) REGIONAL ASSESSMENT EXAMS

Zonal Standard Two Assessment Examination 2025 Tanga, Iringa, Singida, Morogoro, Dodoma, Tabora, Lindi and Mtwara – Darasa Huru

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Zonal Standard Two Assessment Examination 2025 Tanga, Iringa, Singida, Morogoro, Dodoma, Tabora, Lindi and Mtwara

A Standard Two Assessment Examination is a type of school test given to pupils in Standard Two (Grade 2), usually around the end of the term, midterm, or end of the academic year.

It is meant to:

Measure learning progress – check how much pupils have understood what they have been taught.
Identify strengths and weaknesses – help teachers know where learners need more support.
Prepare learners for higher classes – get them used to exam settings for future classes.
Provide feedback – inform teachers, parents, and pupils about performance.

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ARITHMETIC SKILLS

DICTATION

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READING SKILLS

STADI YA KUHESABU

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MESP Tanzania Grade IV (Standard Four) Pre-NECTA Set I Exams 2025, MBI Standard Four Pre NECTA Exams 2025, Brain Master Standard IV Second Pre NECTA Examination 2025, STEP Standard Four Pre-National Assessment August 2025, PENTA Standard Four Pre-National Exams September 2025, MESP Tanzania Grade Four Pre NECTA Exams 2025

MESP Tanzania Grade IV (Standard Four) Pre-NECTA Set I Exams 2025 – Darasa Huru

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MESP Tanzania Grade IV (Standard Four) Pre-NECTA Set I Exams 2025

Grade IV (Standard Four) Pre-NECTA exams are preparatory examinations given to pupils in Standard Four before they sit for the NECTA National Assessment (SFNA – Standard Four National Assessment).

Purpose of Standard Four Pre-NECTA

Preparation – Helps pupils practice answering questions similar to the real NECTA exam.
Assessment – Teachers and parents can measure pupils’ academic progress before the official national exam.
Revision tool – Identifies weak areas in subjects so learners can focus on improving.
Confidence building – Familiarizes pupils with exam structure, reducing fear and anxiety.

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ENGLISH

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GEOGRAPHY AND THE ENVIRONMENT AND ARTS AND SPORTS

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HISTORIA YA TANZANIA NA MAADILI

KISWAHILI.

MATHEMATICS

SCIENCE

PHYSICS FORM FOUR NOTES ALL TOPICS

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PHYSICS FORM FOUR NOTES ALL TOPICS

Download Form Four Physics Notes Free, Physics form four study Notes, Physics Notes form Four, Form Four Physics Notes All Topics – PDF Download. To view and download the Notes, click the following links below:

TOPIC 1 – WAVES

TOPIC 2 – ELECTROMAGNETISM

TOPIC 3 – RADIOACTIVITY

TOPIC 4 – THERMIONIC EMISSION

TOPIC 5 – ELECTRONIC

TOPIC 6 – ELEMENTARY ASTRONOMY

TOPIC 7 – GEOPHYSICS

TOPIC 7: GEOPHYSICS – PHYSICS NOTES FORM FOUR

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TOPIC 7: GEOPHYSICS – PHYSICS NOTES FORM FOUR

Geophysics is a branch of science that deals with the physical, chemical, geological, astronomical and other characteristic properties of the earth.It deals with geological phenomena such as the temperature distribution of the earth’s interior, the source, configuration and the geomagnetic field.

Structure and Composition of the Earth

The Structure of the Earth

Describe the structure of the earth

The structure of the earth is composed of three major zones arranged in concentric manner. These are crust, mantle and core.

The crust

Is the outer solid layer o the earth.It is extremely thin(5 to 15km) compared to the radius of the earth (6,371km).There are two types of crust, namely:

Continental crust: This is heterogeneous and of relatively low density(2 to 2.8 tonnes per cubic meter).-It is composed mainly of granites and sedimentary rocks.
Oceanic crust: This is basaltic and more denser (3.0 to 3.1 tonnes per cubic meter). Both the continental and the oceanic crusts floats on the denser mantle. Because of its low density,the continental crust floats on the mantle at a higher elevation, forming the land masses and mountains. The continental crust is 30 to 70 km thick. The denser oceanic crust floats at a lower elevation forming oceanic basins.It is about 8km thick. The boundary between the crust and the mantle is called Mohorocivic discontinuity or simply Moho. It is a zone between one and several kilometers thick.

The mantle

It begins from the Moho and extends to a depth of 2,900km below the earth’s surface,up to its boundary with the earth’s core.This boundary is called the Gutenberg discontinuity.

The mantle contains about 70% of the earth’s mass.It is composed of rocks,both in solid and mountain states.The upper surface of the mantle has the temperature of about 870°C,and this temperature increases downwards through the mantle to about 2,200°C near the core.

The core

Is the innermost part of the earth.It extends from the Gutenberg discontinuity to the earth’s geometric centre. The core consists of two distinct regions namely:

The inner core: It is composed of solid material because the high pressure at this depth.-It is composed of iron-nickel alloys.
The outer core: Is composed of liquid of molten nickel and iron known as magma. It extends from the mantle to a depth of about 5,000km below the earth’s surface.

Activity 1

In groups of five, discuss why the outer core is liquid while the inner core is solid.

The Composition of the Layers of the Earth

Describe the composition of the layers of the earth

Continental crust is made of granite and sedimentary rocks forming the lands and the mountains while the oceanic crust forms oceanic basins. Mantle is made of solids and molten rocks. The outer core is made of molten nickel and iron called magma while the inner core is solid because of the high pressure. The crust and the mantle are separated by the mohorovicic discontinuity.

The Importance of the Layers of the Earth

Explain the importance of the layers of the earth

Continental crust forms the land and mountains of the earth on which all human activities are carried out e.g farming, housing etc. Oceanic crust forms the base of the oceans and seas on which oceanic water rests and all aquatic organisms like fishes live. The mantle provides the heat transfer from the core to the outer layers a process which causes the volcanic actions and earthquakes.

Earthquake and Volcanoes

Both of them, volcano and earthquake are caused by the movement of molten rock and heat deep inside the earth. These movements are referred to as subterranean movements. Most earthquakes and volcanic activity happen near tectonic boundaries.

The Origin of Volcanoes

Explain the origin of volcanoes

Volcanoes are places where molten rock called magma leaks out through a hole or a crack in the earth’s crust.Magma originates from the mantle,where high temperature and pressure cause the rock to melt.When a large pool of magma if formed,it rises through the denser rock layer towards the earth’s surface.

Magma that has reached the earth’s surface is called lava. Most volcanoes form along constructive and destructive boundaries between tectonic plates.However a few form plate boundaries.

Types of volcanoes

There are two main types of volcanoes, namely:

Fissure volcanoes: These occur along the cracks in and between tectonic plates. They can be many kilometers long. Lava is usually ejected quietly and continuously,forming enormous plains or plateaus of basaltic volcanic rock.
Central volcanoes: These have a single vertical main vent through which mzgm reaches the earth’s surface. They usually develop a cone shape that builds up from successive layers of lava and ash.

Classification of volcanoes

Volcanoes are classified into three categories based on their frequency of eruption, namely:

Active volcanoes: Are those that either erupt constantly or have erupted in recent times. Eg; Oldonyo Lengai.
Dormant volcanoes: Are those that have been inactive for some time(a few thousand years) but can erupt again. Eg; Mt Kilimanjaroc.
Extinct volcanoes: They have not erupted in recorded history. They will probably never erupt again.

Effects of Volcanoes

Describe effects of volcanoes

Effects of volcanoes include:

Landscape: Most of the earth’s surface is covered with volcanic rocks.Volcanoes are also responsible for the formation of many mountains and islands.
Vegetation and wildlife: Volcanic eruption sometimes set the surrounding vegetation into fire.Wild animals are also killed by being buried into the lava or being burnt by the forest fires.
Environment: Volcanic eruptions emit harmful gases into the environment. Such gases include sulphur dioxide. Some of the gases contribute to global warming and climate change.
Human life and property: Volcanic eruptions sometimes kill people and destroy property.
Soil: Volcanoes help in soil formation by bringing important minerals from from deep underground onto the earth’s surface.
Minerals: Volcanoes also bring valuable minerals to the earth’s surface.The minerals are important economic resources.

The Origin of Earthquake

Explain the origin of earthquake

An earthquake is a sudden motion or shaking of the earth caused by a sudden relese of energy that has accumulated within or along the edges of the earth’s tectonic plates.

Earthquakes happen when rocks in the earth’s crust move suddenly, shaking the earth.Earthquake also occur as a result of movement of magma at constructive boundaries under volcanoes and where continental plates collide and push mountain ranges.

How earthquake occur

Earthquakes mostly occur on or near the boundaries between tectonic plates.However ,earthquakes can also occur far from plate boundaries. Such earthquakes probably occur as a result of faults formed millions of years ago.

Pressure liquid builds between them until the friction force holding the plates together gives way.The plates move suddenly,releasing the pressure or energy and then holds together again. This sudden jerk is what is felt as an earthquake.

The point within the earth where an earthquake begins is called the hypocenter or the focus of the earthquake. Earthquake rarely occur along constructive plate boundaries.

Seismic waves

This refers to the energy released by an earthquake. They are grouped into three categories:

Primary waves or p-waves: Are the first waves released from the hypocenter. They are felt as a sudden jolt.
Secondary waves or s-waves: These arrive a few soconds later after p-waves.They are felt as a series of side-to-side tremors.
Surface waves.-They radiate outward from the point on the earth’s surface directly above the hypocentre. This point is called the epicentre of the earthquake.

There are two types of surface waves:

Reyleigh waves- create a rolling movement that makes the land surface move up and down.
Love waves- make the ground shift from side to side. It is the surface waves that demage to surface structure such as buildings and hydroelectric power plants.

The Principle of Measurement

Describe the principle of measurement of earthquake

The nature of an earthquake is usually described by measuring two properties, namely the magnitude and intensity.

The magnitude of an earthquake is a measure of the energy it releases. It is usually measured on the Richter scale.

The Richter scale magnitudes are based on a logarithmic scale(base 10).The intensity of an earthquake is a measure of its strength based on the changes it causes to the landscape.The intensity is usually measured on the Modified Mercalli scale. The scale is calibrated 1 to 12.

Note: An earthquake can have only one magnitude. However its intensity reduces as the seismic waves spread out from the hypocentre,just the same way the loudness of a sound changes as you move away from the source.

The Seismograph: Is an instrument used to record ground movements caused by earthquakes. It measures ground oscillations by recording the relative motion between a pendulum and the ground. It is also possible to use the ratio between the deflection and the of the pendulum and the acceleration of the of the ground to record an earthquake.

Precaution against Earthquake Hazards

Identify precaution against earthquake hazards

Earthquakes hazards

The following are some of the hazards associated with earthquakes:

Landslides
Tsunamis
Collapsing buildings
Fire outbreak
Backward rivers

Earthquake warning signs

The following are important signs that may be observed before an earthquake occurs:

Thermal indicator
Water indicator
Seismo electromagnetic indicator
Animal indicator
Human indicator

Precautions to be taken during an earthquake

The following are some precautions that can be taken to minimise injuries or death of human beings in the event of an earthquake:

If you are indoors during an earthquake ,drop,cover and hold on.Get under a desk,table or a bench.Hold on to one of the legs and cover your eyes.If there is no desk or table nearby, sit down against an interior wall.
Pick a safe place where things will not fall on you-away from windows or tall heavy furniture.
Do not run outside when the earthquake happens because bricks, roofing and other materials may fall from buildings during and immediately after an earthquake, injuring persons near the building.
Wait in your safe place until the shaking stops, then check to see if you are hurt. You will be better able to help others if you take care of yourself first,then check on the people around you.
Move carefully and watch out for things that have fallen or broken creating hazards. Be ready for additional earthquakes called after shocks.
Be on the lookout for fires. Fire is the most common earthquake-related hazard due to damaged gas and electrical lines.
If you must leave a building after the shaking stops, use the stairs and not elevator. Earthquakes can cause fire alarms and fire sprinklers to go off. You will not be certain whether there is a real threat of fire. As a precaution,use the stairs.
If you are outside during an earthquake,stay outside. Move away from buildings, trees, streetlights and power lines. Crouch down and cover your head. Bricks,roofing and other materials can fall from buildings, injuring persons nearby.Trees, streetlights and poor lines may also fall, causing damage or injury.

Structure and Composition of the Atmosphere

The Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere

Describe the vertical structure of the atmosphere

The atmosphere is a layer of gases containing numerous small suspended solid and liquid particles surrounding the earth.It has no outer boundary,it just fades into space.The dense part of the atmosphere lies within 30km above the earth’s surface.

The atmosphere is divided into regions based on its thermal characteristics (temperature changes),chemical composition, movement and density. It is divided into five regions, which are:

Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere
Exosphere

The Composition of the Atmosphere

Describe the composition of the atmosphere

Troposphere

This is the region nearest to the earth’s surface which extends to an altitude up to 10 km above the poles and 20km above the equator.It is the most dense part of the atmosphere(80% by mass of the atmosphere) which contains most of the atmosphere’s water vapour.

The temperature in this region decreases with altitude at an average rate of 6°C/km.It encourages the change of weather(most of weather phenomenon occur in the troposphere).Clouds and rain are formed within this region.

The boundary which separates the troposphere from the the stratosphere is called the tropopause. At the tropopause,the temperature stop decreasing with altitude and becomes constant. The tropopause has an average height of about 10km.

Stratosphere

It starts from the tropopause and extends to 50km high.It is more stable,drier and less dense compared to troposphere.

The temperature slowly increases with altitude due to the presence of ozone layer which absorbs ultraviolet rays from the sun. The ozone layer lies in the middle of the stratosphere between 20 and 30km. Ozone is triatomic(three-molecules) form of oxygen.

The stratosphere together with with troposphere are collectively known as the lower atmosphere.The boundary which separates the stratosphere from the outer layer is called the stratopause.

Advantages of stratosphere

It absorbs the ultraviolet radiations which would otherwise reach the earth’s surface which is harmful to both plants and animals.

It prevents large storms from extending much beyond the troposphere due to its stability. Planes also fly within this layer because it has strong steady horizontal winds which are above the stormy weather of the troposphere.

Mesosphere

It starts just above the stratosphere and extends to 85km high.The temperature at this layer decreases with altitude.The lowest temperature of the atmosphere occurs within this region(-90°C).

Is the layer where most meteors burn while entering the earth’s atmosphere.The boundary which separates the mesosphere from the thermosphere is called the mesopause.

Thermosphere

It is just above the mesopause and extends up to 690km high. The temperature increases with altitude due to the sun’s heat.The temperature in this region can go as high as1727°C and chemical reactions occur faster in this region than on the earth’s surface.

This layer is also known as the upper atmosphere. The lower part of the thermosphere,from 80 to 550km above the earth’s surface, contains the ionosphere. This is a region containing a high concentration of charged particles called ions and free electrons.

Importance of ionosphere

The large number of free electrons in the ionosphere allows the propagation of electromagnetic waves. It absorbs the dangerous radiations like X-rays and extreme ultraviolet(EUV) radiation. It plays an important role in communition of radio waves.

Exosphere

Is the outermost region of the atmosphere.In this region,the atmospheric gas pressure is very low such that light atoms such as hydrogen and helium may acquire sufficient energy to escape the earth’s gravitational pull.

The upper part of the exosphere is called magnetosphere.The motion of ions in this region is strongly constrained by the presence of the earth’s magnetic field.This is the region where satellites orbit the earth.

The Importance of Various Layers of the Atmosphere

Explain the importance of various layers of the atmosphere

The importance of the atmosphere include the following:

The troposphere controls the climate and ultimately determines the quality of life on the earth.
The troposphere is important for life on earth. The layer contains gases which include oxygen which is used for respiration by animals and carbon dioxide which is used by plants in photosynthesis. The nitrogen found in this laye also provides an inactive environment for many chemical processes to take place. The gases also support many important chemical processes such as combustion, weathering and oxidation.
The stratosphere prevents harmful ultraviolet radiation from reaching the earth.
The mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere also prevent harmful radiation such as cosmic rays from reaching the earth’s surface.
Communication is also made possible by some layers of the atmosphere, specifically the ionosphere.

The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming

The Greenhouse Effect

Explain the greenhouse effect

Global warming is the increase of the average temperatures near or on the surface of the earth as a result of what is known as the greenhouse effect. The effect is caused by greenhouse effect. These gases are produced from natural and industrial processes.

The greenhouse effect is the process in which the emission of radiation by the atmosphere warms the earth’s surface.

When heat from the sun reaches the earth’s surface in form of sunlight,some of it is absorbed by the earth.The rest is radiated back to the atmosphere at a longer wavelength than the incoming sunlight. Some of these longer wavelengths are absorbed by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere before they are lost to space.The absorption of this long-wave radiant energy warms the atmosphere.

The greenhouse gases act like a mirror, reflecting back to the earth some of the heat energy which would otherwise be lost to space.

Sources of Greenhouse Effect

Identify sources of greenhouse

Sources of greenhouse effect include:

Carbondioxide
Clearing and burning of vegetation
Burning of fossil fuel
Methane
Dinitrogen oxide
Chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs)

The Occurence of Global Warming

Explain the occurrence of global warming

Global warming is primarily a problem of too much carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the atmosphere—which acts as a blanket, trapping heat and warming the planet. As we burn fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas for energy or cut down and burn forests to create pastures and plantations, carbon accumulates and overloads our atmosphere. Certain waste management and agricultural practices aggravate the problem by releasing other potent global warming gases, such as methane and nitrous oxide.

The Consequences of Global Warming

State the consequences of global warming

Effects of Global Warming

Increase in the temperature of the oceans.
Rise in sea levels.
Change in world’s climatic pattern.
Acidification of the oceans.
Extreme weather events.
Higher or lower agricultural yields.
Melting of Arctic ice and snowcaps. This cause landslides, flash floods and glacial lake overflow.
Extinction of some animal and plant species.
Increase in the range of disease vectors, that is organisms that transmit diseases.

TOPIC 6: ELEMENTARY ASTRONOMY – PHYSICS NOTES FORM FOUR

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TOPIC 6: ELEMENTARY ASTRONOMY – PHYSICS NOTES FORM FOUR

Introduction to Astronomy

The Concept of Astronomy

Explain the concept of astronomy

Astronomy is a branch of science which deals with the study of origin, evolution, composition, distance and the motion of all bodies and scattered matter in the universe.

Universe is the totality of space and time together with matter and energy.
Astronomers are the people who deals with the study of astronomy.

The Importance of Astronomy in Everyday Life

Explain the importance of astronomy in everyday life

Importance of astronomy include:

It was the earliest method of measuring time.
It was used to develop calendars that made it possible to predict the seasons.
It is used in navigation.-Helps us to understand the earth and the life it supports originated from and how it evolved.
It presents a new frontier for exploration.
It promotes the improvement in science and technology due to the need for the study of the universe.
It makes easy to locate places on earth by the use of satellites GPS and other heavenly bodies in the universe.
Astronomy help us to know the origin of the universe and hence study and prepare for the upcoming events in the universe.
It open another wide field for scientists to research thus creating employment and other social and benefits.

Solar System

Difference between a Star and a Planet

Distinguish between a star and a planet

The solar system is made up of the sun and the celestial objects bound to it by gravity. These objects include the eight planets and their known moons and billions of small bodies that include asteroids, comets, meteoroids and interplanetary dust.

Stars and planets

A star is a large celestial body made up of hot gases known as plasma which are held together by own gravity.

Plasma is an ionized gas in which a certain proportion of electrons are free rather than bound to an atom or molecule.

The sun is a large star. The sun is also the closest star to the earth. The distance between the earth and the sun is approximately 149.60 million kilometers.

A Galaxy is a giant collection of stars,gas and dust.

Most stars in the universe are in the galaxies. Nearly all of the stars visible in the night sky are within our own galaxy, sometimes called the Milky Way Galaxy.

Planet is a major (large) object which is in orbit around a star.There are eight planets which are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

Characteristics of a planet

It is a celestial body that orbits a star.
It is massive enough so that its own gravity cause it to assume a spherical shape.
It has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit.

Pluto is not considered as a planet because it resides in an area of space populated by numerous other objects.It is now designated a dwarf planet.The dwarf planet does not meet the third characteristic i.e has not cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit.

Differences between stars and planets

Stars	Planets
Emit their own light	Do not emit their own light
Twinkle at night	Do not twinkle at night
Appear to be moving from east to west.	Planets move around the sun from west to east.
Their temperatures are usually very high	Their temperature depends on their distances from the sun
Countless in number	There are eight in the solar system
Very big in size but they appear small because they are very far away	Very small in size as compared to stars.

Asteroids (minor planets) are small solar system bodies in orbit around the sun, especially in the inner solar system. Asteroids are smaller than planets but larger than a speck of dust.

A comet is a solid body orbiting the sun typically composed of rock dust or ice. Most comets were formed from condensed interstellar gas and dust clouds in the early stages of the creation of the universe.

The Force of Gravitation which Maintains Celestial Bodies in their Orbits

Explain the force of gravitation which maintains celestial bodies in their Orbits

Gravitation force is the attractive force existing between any two objects that have mass. It pulls objects together and acts on all matter on the universe, hence it is sometimes referred to as universal gravitation.

Newton’s law of universal gravitation

It states that: ‘Every single point mass attracts every other point by a force directed along the line joining the two masses.’The force is proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the point masses.

Where:

F is the magnitude of the attractive force between the two point masses.
G is the universal gravitation constant.
m₁ is the mass of the first point mass.
m₂ is the mass of the second point mass.
r is the distance between the centers of the two point masses.

Two bodies attracting each other in the universe

Gravitation force is actually very weak force.The huge gravitational force of the nearest star,the sun,holds together the eight planets of the solar system. The planets move round the space at speeds that just balance the sun’s gravitational pull, so they are locked into a permanent path (orbit) around the sun.

Natural satellites (moons) orbits planets while artificial satellites orbit the earth in the same way as the moon orbits the planets.

Gravity is the gravitational force that occurs between the earth and the other objects.It pulls the objects towards the center of the earth.It holds us on the ground and causes objects to fall back to the ground after being thrown uo in the air.

The earth’s gravitational pull extends out into space in all directions. The further you move away from the center of the earth,the weaker the force becomes. The measure of the force of gravity on an object on the earth’s surface is the weight of that object and is measured in newton (N).

The weight of an object changes depending on its location in the universe.

Constellations

The Concept of Constellation

Explain the concept of constellation

Constellation is a group of stars that form a definite shape or pattern when viewed from the earth.

Constellations are usually named after mythological characters, people, animals and things. There are about 88 known constellations. The various constellations are visible during a particular period of the year.

The Constellation

Identify constellation

Activity 1

In a group of five, draw any five constellations on a Manila paper.

The Uses of Constellation in Everyday Life

Uses of constellation in everyday life

Use of knowledge about constellations include:

Religious-In early days, people thought that the gods lived in the heavens and that the gods created the constellations. Many cultures believed that the position of the stars were their god’s way of telling stories.
Agricultural.-Before there were proper calendars, people had no way of determining when to sow or harvest except by the stars. Constellations made the patterns of the stars easy to remember
Navigation. One can figure out his or her latitude (North or South) just by looking how high Polaris (The North Star) appear in the night sky. This allowed the ships to travel across the globe.

The Earth and the Moon

The Surface Features and Temperature of the Moon

Describe the surface features and temperature of the moon

The moon of the earth is the sixth largest in the solar system. It has a diameter of 3,476km and a mass of 7.35 x 10²²kg. Like the earth, the moon has an iron core surrounded by a rocky mantle and crust.Unlike the earth, no part of the moon’s iron core is molten so it does not have a magnetic field.Surface gravity on the moon is 1/6 that of the earth.

The moon revolves in a anticlockwise direction around the earth in an elliptical orbit. The moon’s orbit is tilted at 5° relative to the earth’s orbit around the sun.The distance between the earth and the moon varies from perigee (nearest the earth) where it is 356,000km to apogee (furthest from the earth) where it is 406,000km. The average distance is 384,000km.

It take the moon 27.3 earth days to complete one orbit, a period of time called the Sidereal month.The moon also rotates about its axis at a rate equal to its rate of revolution. The result of this is that one side of the moon face the earth. The side which faces the earth is called the near side while the side which faces away is called the far side.

The spinning of the earth causes the moon to rise and set each day ,just like the sun. However, because of moons’ orbital motion around the earth ,it(the moon) rises about 50 minutes later each day .As a result, the moon can be seen at different times of the day and night during a month.

The temperatures on the surface of the moon are on average 107°C during the day and 53°C during the night.

Surface features of the moon.

There are two primary types of terrain on the moon. These are;

Heavily cratered very old lunar highlands.
Relatively smooth and younger Maria.

From the surface of the earth,the moon’s surface appears to have bright and dark regions when viewed with the unaided eye.

The bright areas are the lunar highlands that have many craters and covered with a highly reflective layer of fine dust. The highlands are geologically the oldest parts of the moon’s surface.

The dark areas are low areas similar to ocean basins on the earth. They are with dark solidified lava and are less cratered than the highlands. Galileo called these areas matia, Italian word for seas, because their dark smooth surface appears to be large bodies of water.

The maria which makes 16% of the moon’s surface , are huge impact craters that were later flooded with molten lava. Most of the maria is covered with regolith,a mixture of fine dust and rocky debris produced by meteor impact.

The Causes of Ocean Tides

Explain the causes of ocean tides

Tides are periodic rises and falls of large bodies of water caused mainly by gravitational interaction between the earth and the moon.

The earth and the moon are attracted each other, just like magnets are attracted to each other. The moon rises to pull at anything on the earth to bring it closer. But the earth is able to hold onto everything except the water. Since the water always moving, the earth can’t hold onto it and the moon is able to pull at it. This results into ocean tides.

Each day, there are two high tides and two low tides. The ocean constantly moves from high tide to low tide, and then back to high tide. There is a time interval of about 12 hours and 25 minutes between the two high tides.

How tides occur

Gravitational attraction of the moon causes the oceans to bulge out in the direction of the moon. Another bulge occurs on the opposite side since the earth is also being pulled towards the moon (and away from the water on the far side).

Ocean levels fluctuate daily as the sun, moon and earth interact .As the moon travels around the earth, and as they together travel around the sun, the combined gravitational forces cause the world ocean water levels to rise and fall. Since the earth is rotating while this is happening, two tides occur each day.

Types of tides

There are two types of tides:

Spring tides

They occur during the full moon and the new moon. During this time, the earth,the sun and the moon are in a line. The gravitational forces of the moon and the sun both contribute to the tides.

At these times, the high tides are very high and the low tides are very low. These are known as spring high tines and spring low tides respectively.

Spring tides are especially strong tides.Proxigen spring tide is a rare unusually high tide. It occurs when the moon is both unusually close to the earth (at its closest perigee, called the proxigee) and in the new moon phase(when the moon is between the earth and the sun).

The proxigen spring spring tide occurs at most once every 1.5 years.

Neap tide

When the sun and the moon are not aligned, the gravitational forces cancel each other out, and the tides are not very high or very low. These are called neap tides.

They occur during quarter moons. During this time, the gravitational forces of the moon and the sun are perpendicular to one another (with respect to the earth).

This causes the bulges to cancel each other. The result is a smaller difference between high and low tide and is known as a neap tide. Neap tides are especially weak tides.